Dr Mizanur Rahman Shelley

1.Introduction

For long time poverty has been the mark of South Asia. In terms of absolute numbers the region is the habitat of the largest segment of the poor in the present day world. A considerable portion of South Asia’s poor live in Bangladesh. The country, “‘an old nation’ but a new state”, is populous with approximately 140 million inhibiting it. Forty-five percent of them are poor. Bangladesh born in blood and fire after a sanguinary war of liberation in 1971 can be aptly describe as a ‘front line state’ in humankinds continuing war against its ancient enemies: poverty, hunger, malnourishment, illiteracy and superstition.
The war of liberation that helped Bangladesh emerge as a sovereign new state resulted from the aspirations of the people of the territory to achieve a democratic way of life ensuring peace, stability, equitable development and comprehensive social and economic progress. Three and a half decades after liberation many of the hopes and aspirations of the citizens of Bangladesh remain unachieved. Poverty, hunger, malnourishment and illiteracy still haunt a considerable portion of the population. Along with other poverty-riddle countries of South Asia Bangladesh needs to move on with farsighted, sound and effective policies and programmes to alleviate poverty and ensure total economic and socio-political development to realize the purpose of freedom.
Efforts to alleviate poverty have met with notable success in some countries and some areas of particular countries in the region.
By and large, however, South Asia has yet to travel a long way in order to first reduce and then eradicate poverty. As in other areas of the world, so also in the South Asian region, simple economism-oriented growth has not resulted in making dents on poverty. Economic development and progress without equity has shown that specific projects and programmes to encompass the poor in the process of growth are necessary but not enough. Such projects and programmes need to be dove-tailed in a holistic framework. This prescription has proved effective in countries and regions which have successfully addressed the problem of poverty and succeeded in alleviating it to a remarkable extent.
The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), at the highest level, has shown awareness of the necessity of the holistic approach for effective poverty alleviation. The declaration of the 12th SAARC Summit at Islamabad amply manifested this consciousness. It asserted that “poverty alleviation was overarching goal of all SAARC countries and provision of basic needs, promotion of liberty and better health care were all regional priorities.” Strategies and policy interventions were recommended for alleviating poverty through pro-poor economic development and growth.
The holistic approach provides a sound and efficacious framework for poverty alleviation. Nevertheless, the requirement of fully utilizing the potential and the power of the poor by themselves for improving their lot needs to be met.

2.Strategic priorities: South Asia perspective

The struggle against poverty will never succeed if it continues to be an encyclopedic list of do’s and don’ts hopelessly bereft of any sense of strategic priority. Poverty is so pervasive in South Asia that a million priorities will not exhaust the agenda. But to get the momentum going, the energies of South Asian nations have to be galvanized around a few catalytic agendas. These strategic priorities are :

2.a: Mobilizing the power of the poor:

Empowerment of the poor is the most crucial element of any poverty reduction strategy. Through empowerment, the poor can assert their rights to various resources intended for them and enhance their dignity and self-respect. Empowered poor groups can work in partnership with local governments and community based organizations in various decision-making processes and development activities. Poor are vulnerable and often have to operate under exploitative circumstances be these in labour, credit, land or product markets. Building organizations of the poor is thus an essential prerequisite for empowering the poor. Forming groups will usually enable them to overcome the many obstacles they face in their social and livelihood struggles. Such grassroot level organizations help the poor to strengthen their ‘bargaining power’ and achieve better tenancy rights, elimination of unpaid labour and access to public resources .

2.b:Prudent macroeconomics:

In all the countries of the SAARC region, economic growth and structural transformation can be accelerated within a market –friendly environment. These economies promise to achieve a sustainable growth path through a number of policy reforms that may further enhance efficiency and productivity. In addition, the resource utilization may also be increased by expansion of production to cater to the export markets. The Gross Domestic Products(GDP) of these countries are targeted to increase to 6% by the year 2010.
Achieving a high economic growth and meeting the challenges of developing in a rapidly globalising world economy requires greater focus on prudent macroeconomic policies. There are several components to such a prudent strategy. An important focus has to be the improvement in the knowledge sector i.e. new technology, R&D and innovations. Such a strategy will help South Asian nations adapt well to the challenges of rapid technological development and the changing global economic environment. Creating a financially healthy public sector will also be crucial in the process of ensuring growth and economic stability. Macro financial policies have to be directed towards achieving stable exchange rates, low-interest regimes and price stability. In addition, various polices are needed to strengthen the revenue flows of the governments and eliminate wasteful expenditure. Such policies will help to keep budget deficits down and inflation within control. Another important area for policy attention is incentives which can help to boost FDI and private sector investment particularly in sectors with high growth and employment potentials. Strategies for promotion and diversification of exports fostering private-public partnerships as well as reforms in labour markets, financial and power sectors have also to be considered in line with the needs and priorities of each country .

2.c:Mainstreaming the informal economy:

Growing informalisation of labour force has been an issue of great concern in South Asia. In many countries in the region, employment in the informal sector comprises a significant portion of total employment. For example, in India the share of the informal sector workforce accounts for approximately 93% of total workforce. Informal employment is important for women in South Asia.
Informal economy contributes directly to poverty reduction in the region by securing the livelihood of a large proportion of the population. Nevertheless, in many countries, the contribution of the informal economy continues to remain invisible. There is a great need to raise the visibility of the workers in the informal economy and to develop a national policy framework to promote their contribution to the GDP, support their livelihood and protect their welfare.
The key concerns for a strategy to mainstream the informal economy are:
- Reducing various impediments and barriers that restrict informal sector in the process of entering the formal economy. For example, introduction of low and fair taxation process.
- Providing legal identities for informal markets and business through simple and affordable registration procedures and regulations.
- Provision of various infrastructure facilities- these may include roads, transport facilities, formal markets, street furniture such as benches, storage containers etc needed by various groups of informal workers such as street vendors as well as water and electricity facilities required for home-based workers.
- Provision of social protection, social security schemes and health-care for informal sector employees.
- Development of support organizations which can facilitate enabling environments and champion the cause of the informal sector.
- Provision of financial facilities, training, marketing and other inputs for informal sector entrepreneurs .

2.d: Sustainable development:

Sustainable development is about improving the living standards of the people, not at the expense of the future generations, but in a way from which their children and grandchildren will benefit. The world’s population is projected to reach nine billion by 2050 and two-thirds of them will live in cities. The demand for water, electricity, housing, education and health facilities will be enormous and South Asia will be no exception. Without far sighted and prudent policies and competent institutions, social and environment strain can derail any short-term progress and lead to higher levels of poverty and declining quality of life.
The goal of sustainable development requires us to look at development as a holistic and multi-dimensional process embracing the following:
- Adequate financial and physical capital.
- Effective education and health policies and programmes.
- Social capital and the empowerment of the poor.
- Sensitive and intelligent natural resource management.
- Private sector development.
- Innovative technology policy and programmes.
- Integration of environment considerations and protecting and developing environmental quality including in the growing urban landscape .

2.e: Enhancing gender and other equities:

South Asia has achieved significant progress in socio-economies development during the preceding decades but this progress has been highly uneven. There are large and growing disparities among regional, gender, income and ethnic groups. Inequity in access to resources and social services as well as in participation in economic and political activities has been a major obstacle in faster reduction of poverty in South Asia. Thus, enhancing equity is a strategic priority if the full potentials of the growth process are to be realised and the poor are not to be left further behind. Enhancing equity requires attention to many areas including gender, income levels, regions, ethnicity and cultures .

2.f: Effective, harmonious and all-around co-operation among the countries of South Asia:
Strengthening cooperation among the South Asian countries in the economic, political and socio-cultural spheres is essential to accelerate economic growth and improve welfare of the people. Such co-operation can strengthen the collective voice of the region and ensure an atmosphere of trust and harmony. Priority areas for regional co-operation include trade and investment, science and technology, energy, poverty alleviation, human resources development, agriculture and rural development and transport and communication .

3.Situation analysis/striking areas: Bangladesh

Tolstoy begins ‘Anna Karenina’ with the famous sentence: ‘All happy families are alike but an unhappy family is unhappy after its own fashion.’ Perhaps that is also the case in the world of economic misery and well-being. The diversity of experience of the poor countries in the world is much wider and sharper than that of the rich countries. This is partly because the number of people and countries that are poor is much larger (and, socially, geographically, and institutionally, far more heterogeneous) than that of rich countries. (Parnab Bardhan and Christopher Udry: Development Microeconomics,1999)

As is now widely acknowledged, poverty encompasses deprivation in well-being, not just as measured by income or consumption poverty, but also inferior outcomes in areas like education and health, and in vulnerability and powerlessness as well . This report takes this broader view of poverty, both in asking how it has evolved in Bangladesh in recent years, and in discussing measures to tackle it. Despite recent achievements, the analysis reveals that the magnitude of development challenges facing the country is daunting.

3.a: Livelihood:

3.a.1: Eradication of hunger and poverty

3.a.1.1: Halve between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger:
According to Food Energy Intake (FEI) method, the poverty tendency was 44.7 percent in 1999 and it reduced to 42.1 percent in 2004 on the basis of Head Count Ratio in national level. In the same period it reduced 43.3 to 42.1 percent in urban areas and 44.9 to 43.3 percent in villages. According to Direct Calorie Intake (DCI), poverty reduced more quickly. According to DCI method, the poverty rate was 46.2 percent in 1999 and reduced to 40.9 percent in 2004 .

Table: Comparative picture of poverty tendency on the basis of FEI method and DCI method

Area Food Energy Intake (FEI) method Direct Calorie Intake (DCI) method
Head Count Ratio % Head Count Ratio %
1999 2004 1999 2004
National 44.7 42.1 46.2 40.9
Urban 43.3 37.9 49.9 43.6
Rural 44.9 43.3 45.6 40.1

(Source: Bangladesh economic review, 2005, p-165.)

According to this method the Hardcore Poverty also reduced during the period 1999 to 2004. In 1999 it was 24.9 percent at national level and reduced to 18.7 percent in 2004 .


Table: Hard-core Poverty tendency on the basis of DCI method

Hard-core Poverty (? 1805 kilo calorie %) Area 1999 2004
National 24.9 18.7
Urban 27.3 20.8
Rural 24.5 18.2

(Source: Bangladesh economic review, 2005, p-165.)

3.a.1.2: Prevalence of underweight children
The prevalence of moderately underweight children (6-71 months) has declined noticeably from 67 percent in 1990 to 51 percent in 2000, while that of severely underweight children of the same age group has been halved from 25 to 13 percent during roughly the same period. Also, the proportion of moderately underweight children under the age of five years reduced from 56 to 48 percent during the period 1997-2000 .
3.a.1.3: Child malnutrition
Despite the progress achieved, child malnutrition in Bangladesh remains among the highest in the world, and more severe than that of most other developing countries, including the countries of sub-Saharan Africa. The proportion of underweight children in Bangladesh is 16 percent higher than 16 other Asian countries at similar levels of per capita GDP. Nearly half the children are underweight or stunted, with 13 to 19 percent being severely underweight or stunted in terms of being more than three standard deviations below the relevant National Centre for Health Statistics
(NCHS) standards. This suggests that children in Bangladesh suffer from short-term acute shortfall in food intake as well as longer-term under-nutrition. Much remains to be done in this vital area.



(Source: Millennium Development Goals Bangladesh Progress Report, (2005), Jointly prepared by the United Nations Country Team in Bangladesh and the Government of Bangladesh,p-7.)



(Source: Millennium Development Goals Bangladesh Progress Report, (2005), Jointly prepared by the United Nations Country Team in Bangladesh and the Government of Bangladesh,p-8.)

There are also large differences in child malnutrition rates across economic groups. Child malnutrition is pervasive among the poor. More than 60 percent of the children 6-71 months old suffering from stunting, belong to the bottom consumption quintile. Contrary to expectation however, nearly a third of the children from the richest quintile also suffer from malnourishment. This suggests that factors other than income play an important role in this phenomenon.
Such factors include per capita household food intake; infant feeding practices; maternal schooling and hygiene practices; access to safe drinking water, sanitation and health facilities, quality of village infrastructure and protection against natural disasters. Presence of NGOs and public relief programs have been found to have strong correlation to reduction in child malnutrition in the lowest consumption quintile .
Challenge:
Halving the proportion of people who suffer from hunger will be a challenging task. Speeding up per capita income growth and pursuing targeted safety net programmes are needed for the expansion of household food intake .
Strategies:
A comprehensive programme to address hunger would include interventions in the following areas :
• Promoting food security by sustaining strong growth of domestic food production and implementing a liberalized regime for food imports.
• Promoting change in food habits for increasing nutritional intake of vulnerable people.
• Promoting improved infant feeding practices, including breast-feeding practices.
• Supporting maternal schooling and hygienic practices.
• Improving access to safe drinking water, especially by addressing the threat of arsenic contamination of underground water.
• Improving access to sanitation.
• Improving access to basic health facilities.
• Supporting safety nets for protection against natural disasters;
• Promoting partnership among the Government, private sector and NGOs in designing and implementing interventions to promote food security.

3.a.2:Halve proportion of people in poverty by 2015

To achieve MDG, Bangladesh must reduce by 2015 the proportion of population with income less than one US dollar (Purchasing power parity, PPP) a day from 58.8 percent in 1991-92 to 29.4 percent and the proportion of people in extreme poverty from 28 percent in 1990 to 14 percent by 2015 .
Situational Analysis:
3.a.2.1: Poverty reduction
Bangladesh has made good progress since FY92 in reducing income poverty based on the national poverty line. The country was able to lower the overall incidence of poverty from 58.8 percent in 1991-92 to about 50 percent in 2000, or one percentage point per year. Bangladesh’s good economic growth performance – with overall GDP growth averaging 5 percent and per-capita growth averaging 3.3 percent per annum during FY1992-2001 – contributed much to this progress. This was achieved despite a rise in inequality during the nineties – with overall Ginny coefficient rising from 0.259 in 1992 to 0.306 in 2000 – which partly offset the positive impact of growth. In spite of the advancement, 63 million people are poor with one-third caught in hard-core or extreme poverty .



(Source: Millennium Development Goals Bangladesh Progress Report, (2005), Jointly prepared by the United Nations Country Team in Bangladesh and the Government of Bangladesh,p-5.)

3.a.2.2: Poverty gap (PG) and squared poverty gap (SPG)
Trends in the poverty gap show a drop from 17.2 in 1991/92 to 10.9 in 2004. This suggests that even among the poor a greater number of people are now closer to the poverty line than at the beginning of the 1990s. It is also worth noting however, that the distributionally sensitive measures (PG, SPG) declined relatively more rapidly than the poverty headcount rate. On average, rural areas did better than urban areas in reducing the depth and severity of poverty, which implies that growth in rural areas was more pro-poor than in urban areas. The urban poverty gap stood at 9.5 percent in 2000.

Table: Poverty gap and Squared Poverty gap in 1999 and 2004

Area 1999 2004
Poverty gap Squired Poverty gap Poverty gap Squired Poverty gap
National 11.1 4.1 10.9 3.9
Urban 11.2 4.2 11.1 4.5
Rural 11.1 4.0 10.9 3.8

(Source: Bangladesh economic review, 2005, p-165.)
3.a.2.3:Inequality
Income inequality in Bangladesh rose during the nineties, particularly in urban areas. Inequality in the distribution of per capita household expenditure, as measured by the Ginny coefficient, rose from 0.259 in 1991/92 to 0.306 in 2000.



(Source: Millennium Development Goals Bangladesh Progress Report, (2005), Jointly prepared by the United Nations Country Team in Bangladesh and the Government of Bangladesh,p-6.)

The inequality in Bangladesh is explained by the fact that around three-fifths of total income or consumption accrues to the highest two quintiles of the population, while the lowest three quintiles receive about two-fifths. The shares are comparable to other countries of the region.
3.a.2.4: Rural and urban dimensions of poverty
Despite encouraging progress in reducing the overall incidence of poverty in the nineties, the absolute number of poor continues to be nearly 63 million, with poverty remaining largely a rural phenomenon. An estimated 85 percent of the country’s poor – 53.5 million out of a total of 62.7 million poor – live in the rural areas.
Progress in reducing poverty incidence in the nineties was equal across urban and rural areas, even though average per capita expenditures increased much faster in urban areas. A sectoral decomposition of the change in national poverty incidence suggests that the rural sector, with 80 percent of the population, contributed 78 percent of the total decrease in national poverty incidence between 1992 and 2000. The urban sector contributed about 13 percent, while migration from rural to urban areas, where poverty is lower, accounted for the remaining 9 percent decline .
Challenge and strategies:
Various empirical analyses have concluded that economic growth was the most important factor contributing to poverty reduction. Achieving and sustaining strong economic growth will require attention to many fronts such as:
• Pursuing monetary and fiscal policies that sustain macroeconomic stability.
• Improving transparency, accountability and efficiency of the Government in all key areas, including taxation, public procurement, land administration, law enforcement, administration of justice and regulation of banking, insurance, and the credit market.
• Enhancing government effectiveness by focusing on core state functions and delivery of public services.
• Expanding national capacity to design and enforce policies, laws, and regulations that facilitate private sector investment.
• Further liberalizing the trade regime to exploit the advantages of the rapidly globalizing world economy.
• Restructuring and privatizing state-owned enterprises and business activities under appropriate incentive and regulatory schemes, and reallocating public resources to the provision of high priority public good.
• Accelerating development of infrastructure in key areas – such as power, ports, roads, inland water transport, and telecommunications – inadequacy in which have been identified as constraints on the investment climate.
• Strengthening capacity for enhanced absorption of resources derived from foreign aid and assistance.

3.b:Health:
3.b.1:Maternal health

To achieve MDG, Bangladesh must reduce maternal mortality from 574 deaths per 100,000 live births in 1990 to 143 by 2015 ; increase the proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel to 50%, and reduce the Total Fertility Rate to 2.2 per woman by 2010 .
In addition to the above, a third target for Bangladesh is Reproductive Health (RH) Services for All as this is closely linked to maternal mortality and morbidity. The indicators for RH are maternal malnutrition and median age at marriage. The target is to reduce maternal malnutrition from 45 percent in 2000 to less than 20 percent by 2015, and to increase the median age of girls at first marriage from 18 to 20 years .
Situation Analysis
3.b.1.1: Maternal Mortality
In spite of the fact that maternal mortality has declined from nearly 574 per 100,000 live births in the 1990 to between 320 and 400 in 2013 , the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) in Bangladesh remains one of the highest in the world. It is estimated that 14% of maternal deaths are caused by violence against women, while 12,000 to 15,000 women die every year from maternal health complications. Some 45 percent of all mothers are malnourished.
The population of Bangladesh is relatively young, with a third falling within the age group of 10-24 years. Nearly half the adolescent girls (15-19 years) are married, 57 percent of them become mothers before the age of 19, and half these adolescent mothers are acutely malnourished. Thus MMR among adolescent mothers is 30-50 percent higher than the national rate.
The chief causes of maternal deaths are hemorrhage, unsafe abortion, and the ‘three delays dynamics’. The first delay, arising mainly from poverty, is in seeking professional care; the second delay is logistical as most of the health centres and private clinics are located in district towns whereas 70 percent of the population are rural based; the third delay arises from the lack of adequate human recourses and trained personnel at the service centres .


(Source: Millennium Development Goals Bangladesh Progress Report, (2005), Jointly prepared by the United Nations Country Team in Bangladesh and the Government of Bangladesh,p-34)
3.b.1.2:Births attended by skilled health personnel
The number of births attended by skilled health personnel has increased from 5% in 1990 to 12% in 2000. In the context of Bangladesh, the increase is insignificant as the majority still do not receive such services. However, there are wide variations among income groups: 40 percent of births in the highest income quintiles are attended by skilled health personnel, compared to only four percent in the lowest quintiles .
3.b.1.3:Total Fertility Rate
There has been significant decline in the total fertility rate (TFR) from 6.6 per thousand live births in the mid 1970s to 3.3 in the mid 1990s with regional variations in the reduction pattern. However, in spite of a steady increase in contraceptive prevalence rate from 45 percent in 1994 to 54 percent in 2000, TFR has platitude, partly due to adolescent fertility which is extremely high at 14.4 per 1000 live births.
Several measures have been taken to address these problems. The Essential Obstetrics Care (EOC) programme through the Maternal and Child Welfare Centers (MCWC) was introduced in the early 1990s. Subsequently, a more holistic approach was adopted through the National Maternal Health Strategy 2001 which takes a rights-based approach to maternal health with Safe Motherhood as its central theme. The Strategy has been integrated into the Health and Population Sector Program, (HPSP 1998-2003) and into its follow-up the Health, Nutrition and Population Sector Program, (HNPSP 2004-2006).
Interventions such as Safe Motherhood Services that provide iron, folic acid and vitamin, supplements to the target population have been included in the HNPSP, with the objective of reducing maternal malnutrition to below 20 percent by 2015. Other interventions under this project include training programmes for skilled health personnel.
Both the Government of Bangladesh and the donors are giving priority to the promotion of safe motherhood from the grassroots level upwards, through antenatal care, safe delivery, pre-natal care, essential obstetrical care and family planning .
Challenges
In Bangladesh progress report (2005) on Millennium Development Goals, jointly prepared by the United Nations Country Team in Bangladesh and the Government of Bangladesh, identified the following five challenges:
Challenge 1: Reducing the Total Fertility Rate
If the population of Bangladesh stabilizes by 2035, there will be over 40 million women of reproductive age (15-45 years) in 2015 who will be the target population for preventive and awareness raising programmes on safe motherhood.
Strategies:
In order to further reduce TFR, studies must be conducted to analyse the causes of its current stagnation. Advocacy programmes must be introduced on population stabilization.
Challenge 2: Reduce the maternal mortality ratio to 143 per 100,000 live births by 2015
If MMR is to be reduced to 143 per 100,000 live births by 2015, the decrease will have to be at substantial rates:
• ?During 2005-2008 MMR must be reduced by 5.6 percent points a year
• During 2008-2011 MMR must be reduced by 7 percent points a year
• During 2011-2014 MMR must be reduced by 8 percent points a year
• During 2014-2015 MMR must be reduced by 12 percent points a year
Strategies:
Meeting this challenge will require the following:
• Bringing about a fundamental change in knowledge, attitude and behavior towards safe motherhood and gender equality through an advocacy campaign on safe motherhood involving 13 relevant ministries.
• Increasing access to quality health facilities through public, private and NGO initiatives.
• Increasing financial investments in the health sector including in skills development.
• Specifically targeting the poor for reproductive health interventions, as maternal mortality and morbidity is highest in the lower income groups.
• Accelerating the reduction of malnutrition, especially for females of reproductive age.
Challenge 3: Rapidly increasing the proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel
If population is stabilized by 2035, 2.52 million children will be born in 2010; 2.56 million in 2013 and 2.6 million in 2015. The 2001 Bangladesh National Strategy for Maternal Health calls for 50 percent of all deliveries to be attended by skilled health personnel by 2010. This implies that 1.26 million deliveries will be attended by skilled health personnel in 2010 .
Strategies:
To achieve this target, there must be a rapid increase in the rate of growth of births attended by skilled health personnel, which will in turn require an accelerated increase in the number of trained personnel.
Challenge 4: Increasing by two years the median age of girls at first marriage
There is a significant relationship between delayed marriage and lower fertility and greater health seeking behaviour. Thus, increasing the median age of marriage of girls by two years can significantly lower adolescent fertility, reduce MMR, slow the rate of population growth, and improve the nutritional level of young mothers and children.
Strategies:
This can be achieved by providing greater access to higher education for adolescent girls through scholarship and stipend programmes. Such interventions must be accompanied by advocacy and awareness raising campaigns on safe motherhood to promote changes in attitudinal and cultural behaviour.
Challenge 5: Providing reproductive services to all by 2015
In addition to the MDG global targets, Bangladesh will also attempt to achieve the following RH target:
• Halve maternal morbidity
• Halve maternal malnutrition
• Reduce TFR to 2.2
• Improve adolescent reproductive health
• Eliminate violence against women
Strategies:
In aiming for such ambitious targets some constraints need to be taken into consideration:
• Reliable national estimates are not available for morbidity. Age specific female mortality rates will serve as proxies until better parameters are identified.
• The picture of maternal malnutrition is bleak in Bangladesh – 45 percent of all mothers are malnourished and only one percentage point decline has been achieved per year. In a business-as-usual scenario, by 2015, about 25 to 30 percent of mothers will still remain malnourished. It is expected that the new Health, Nutrition and Population Sector Program (HNPSP) will address some of the challenges relating to maternal malnutrition.
• Adolescent reproductive health (ARH) has to receive increased attention to ensure an improved health life cycle, and to put early preventive measures to the threat of the spread of HIV/AIDS. As data on ARH is scanty, teenage (15-19 years) pregnancy and motherhood can be used as a proxy. A survey carried out in 1999-2000 shows teenage pregnancy to be as high as 35 percent. A comprehensive strategy has to be developed if it is to be almost eliminated by 2015.
• Violence against women is a major concern for health, productivity, dignity and maternal mortality in Bangladesh. It is estimated that 14 percent of maternal deaths are caused by violence. Inclusion of this indicator when monitoring the MDGs will help raise awareness of this national problem. It will also promote quantitative methods for monitoring the progress towards the elimination of violence against women.

3.b.2: Child health

MDG indicates that under-five mortality rate must be reduced from 151 deaths per thousand live births in 1990 to 50 in 2015 .
Situation Analysis:
3.b.2.1: Under-five Mortality
While there has been an appreciable drop in under-five death rates from 151 deaths per thousand live births in 1990 to 87 in 1999, the rate has since slowed considerably, with the figure standing at 82 in 2001. From this base, it will be necessary to maintain a pace of annually reducing under-five deaths by at least three deaths per thousand live births to achieve MDG by 2015.



(Source: Millennium Development Goals Bangladesh Progress Report, (2005), Jointly prepared by the United Nations Country Team in Bangladesh and the Government of Bangladesh,p-27)


Child mortality rate is a reflection of the care, health and nutrition status of children below the age of five years and also indicates the social, cultural, and economic progress in the country.
In the case of under-fives, neonatal and prenatal causes contribute to 48 percent of the deaths. Other factors include very low rates of institutional deliveries (8.6%), low attendance of deliveries by skilled personnel (12%), and low utilization of antenatal care (48%). More than 71 percent of these neonatal deaths were due to noncommunicable diseases, mainly birth-related ailments as well as neonatal tetanus.
Other major causes of under-five deaths are pneumonia (18%), diarrhea (6%), injuries and drowning (8%), and measles, with malnutrition underlying most other causes (13%). Poor care-seeking behaviour and practices are also important contributing factors. Only 8 percent of parents of sick children under the age of five seek care from qualified health care providers .
In order to reduce deaths from diarrhea, the oral rehydration therapy (ORT) campaign has been in effect for several decades. The use of oral rehydration solution (ORS) has increased from 62 percent in 2000 to 68 percent in 2003.



(Source: Millennium Development Goals Bangladesh Progress Report, (2005), Jointly prepared by the United Nations Country Team in Bangladesh and the Government of Bangladesh,p-28)
Malnutrition contributes to over one half of child deaths, with low birth weight estimated to affect 30 to 50 percent of infants. Over the years, appropriate interventions have helped to reduce the proportion of underweight children from 66.5 percent in 1990 to 51.1 percent in 2000, and child stunting from 65.5 to 48.8 percent. In spite of this, the prevalence of child stunting and underweight is still very high according to WHO criteria.
To address child malnutrition, it is essential to improve the nutritional status of adolescent girls and mothers, because if mothers are malnourished, their children are much more likely to have low birth weight, and to remain malnourished throughout their lives. Although chronic energy deficiency in non-pregnant women has declined from 52 percent in 1997 to 45 percent in 2000, it still remains at unacceptably high levels. Since 1997, the prevalence of night blindness, an early indicator of Vitamin A deficiency, has been maintained below the one percent threshold that indicates a public health problem. This success has largely been due to the Vitamin A supplementation programme, which increased coverage from 41 percent in 1993 to over 85 percent in the second half of the decade by linking the distribution of Vitamin A capsules with the (National Immunization Day) NIDs. Coverage of iodized salt increased from 19 percent in 1993 to 70 percent in 1999, and correspondingly, the prevalence of iodine deficiency fell from 69 to 43 percent. While these findings are encouraging, they mask the fact that infants and children continue to consume diets that are grossly inadequate in Vitamin A, iron and other micro-nutrients. Anemia, which is largely due to iron deficiency, affects about 50 percent of under-five children, a prevalence level that denotes a severe public health problem. Breastfeeding is rarely exclusive for the first six months of life, and complementary foods are often introduced too early or too late and are of poor quality.
There is urban-rural difference in under-five mortality rates. In 2001, the rate in urban areas was 52 percent while in rural areas it was 89 percent. Similarly, there is also difference in under-five mortality rate between boys and girls. In 2001, the under-five mortality rate for boys was 84 percent and for girls 81 percent.
There has been an epidemiological transition of mortality pattern in Bangladesh. Due to the relative decline in deaths caused by infectious diseases, statistics now reveal that injuries and accidents are also important causes of deaths. For example, 8 percent of all under-five deaths and 30 percent of total deaths among children aged 1-4 years have been found to be caused by injuries and accidents such as drowning .
3.b.2.2:Infant Mortality
The trend shows that there has been a steady decline in the infant mortality rate (IMR) from 94 per thousand live births in 1990 to 56 per thousand in 2001. About two-thirds of infant mortality are from neonatal deaths which are a direct consequence of factors such as low birth weight, pre-term delivery and birth asphyxia.



(Source: Millennium Development Goals Bangladesh Progress Report, (2005), Jointly prepared by the United Nations Country Team in Bangladesh and the Government of Bangladesh,p-29)

It is estimated that to achieve the goal of 32 deaths per thousand live births, the current declining rate must be sustained. That is, infant death rates must be reduced annually by at least two deaths per thousand live births between 2005 and 2015 .
3.b.2.3:Immunization
Access to vaccination has been among the foremost interventions that have helped reduce mortality rates in Bangladesh. National Immunization Days (NID) have been observed for many years and have proved very successful. Since 2001 not a single case of wild poliovirus transmission has been confirmed in the country. The percentage of fully immunized children increased from 53 percent in the 1990s to 69 percent in 2000 but the coverage remains below expectations. In 2003 BCG coverage was 96 percent while measles coverage was only 69 percent.
The reasons for the low rates from the demand perspective, include drop-outs resulting from the lack of awareness of the need for immunization, lack of information on the medical aspects of the vaccines, and distance of the vaccination centres. From the supply side, the low rates arise from the absence of medical personnel in the health centres, irregular review of the immunization programme and inadequate supervision costs.
To offset some of these problems, supplementary immunization activities have been introduced and currently 86 percent of new-borns are protected at birth against neonatal tetanus. Since 2003, under the Expanded Programme of Immunization, Hepatitis B vaccination has been introduced, along with the use of auto destruct syringes. The programme has been activated in seven districts and one City Corporation, and by 2005 covered all districts in the country .
Challenges
In Bangladesh progress report (2005) on Millennium Development Goals, jointly prepared by the United Nations Country Team in Bangladesh and the Government of Bangladesh, identified the following challenges:
Challenge 1: Cost of immunization
The multi-year EPI plan estimates that to fully immunize the under-one population at 80 percent per annum will require US$57 million per year. An additional US$ 5.2 million per year will be required for scaling up the Integrated Management of Childhood Diseases (IMCI), an important component of the Health, Nutrition and Population Sector Programme (HNPSP) that addresses childhood mortality. The nutrition component of the same programme is estimated to cost US$36.9 million annually. The cost of other related programmes will add to the financial requirements.
Challenge 2: Sustaining Success
Success has been achieved in Bangladesh because of the close attention paid to infectious and parasitic diseases in the past two decades. This should be maintained.
Strategies:
To achieve this MDG by 2015 this momentum has to be sustained by:
• Consolidating and strengthening achievements in on-going interventions that address fundamental causes of childhood mortality. These include routine immunization, and control of diarrhea diseases, and acute respiratory infection.
• Accelerating the pace of reduction in neonatal mortality through ensuring antenatal care, skilled attendance at birth, and emergency obstetrics care for those in need.
• Enhancing the effectiveness of interventions for reducing malnutrition among children and women, with a special focus on adolescent girls, through bridging deficiencies of both macro and micro-nutrients (especially iron and iodine).
• Exploring interventions required to address the contemporary causes of mortality, i.e., accidents and injuries, specially drowning.
• Strengthening partnerships between the Government, NGOs, specialized agencies and local government institutions.
• Integrating vertical programmes for reduction of childhood mortality such as ARI and CDD, to achieve efficiency gains for both care seekers and providers.
• Focusing on consumer awareness and communication strategies for promoting behavioural change.
• Ensuring need-based-targeting of un-reached and un-served populations, especially for area-specific health and nutrition interventions in urban slums, the Chittagong Hill Tracts and coastal areas.
• Strengthening the management information system through establishing a database for informed decision support, information gaps, consistency and veracity.
3.b.3: Affordable health-care
Key targets for affordable health-care set by ISACPA include access to primary health-care services in every village/island run by paramedics, access to affordable medicine including essential and alternative medicine (i.e. Ayurvedic, Unani and Homeopathy ), training of rural medical practitioners, including those practicing alternative medicine and awareness raising programmes to combat major diseases .
Situation Analysis:
3.b.3.1: Accessibility of health facilities:
Data from the rural community questionnaires in the 1995-96 and 2000 Household Expenditure Survey (HES) were used to assess changes in the accessibility of health infrastructure. Not all categories are comparable across the two surveys, though the ones that are do suggest improvements in regard to various health facilities. For example, the average distance to a satellite clinic decreased from 9.9 to 8.0 km. between 1995-96 and 2000, when accessibility of private health care service providers also improved significantly. Pharmacies – the most commonly used health facilities – were also found to be the most accessible. However, while community-level data on average distance to health facilities was not collected in urban areas, data from the household survey module indicate that users of government facilities in rural areas on average travel and wait 1.5 times longer than their urban counterparts. Rural residents continue to be comparatively disadvantaged in access to health facilities, though the differential appears to be considerably lower than in many other counties .
3.b.3.2:Access to essential drugs:
According to WHO, as of 1997, at least one-third of the world’s population still lack access to essential medicines, either because they are not available, are too expensive, or because there are no adequate facilities or trained professionals to prescribe them. In poorer areas of Asia and Africa this figure may be as high as one-half. Various estimates indicate that in 1997, about 80 percent of the people of Bangladesh had sustainable access to affordable essential drugs.
According to the Directorate of Drug Administration, in 2002, all the essential drugs in the local market were produced locally utilizing about 45 percent of the production capacity of the local pharmaceutical industries. About 85 percent of the raw material used in the local production are imported. Being a drug exporting, least developed country, Bangladesh, has a unique position in the region, of not being required to adhere to the TRIPS Agreement until 2016 .
Challenges:
Challenge 1: Average distance to health facilities should be reduced
One of the major problems of the rural people is getting the health services by overcoming difficulties arising from distance of facilities. In many areas the communication system is not good. It makes more difficult for the patient to get treatment.
Challenge 2: Facilitate required equipment for treatment
In many health centres, the required equipment for the treatment are not available. Many of the available equipment do not work properly. This scenario should be changed immediately.
Challenge 3: Facilitate the treatment of some critical health problems that the people mostly suffer in all the health centers
In short-term it is difficult to facilitate specialized doctors for all the areas. But we can train up the health workers on some critical health problems that the people mostly suffer. At least make them capable of giving primary treatment and suggest the way of further treatment.
Challenge4: Ensuring access to essential affordable drugs
The current problems to ensure access to essential affordable drugs are the procurement, quality control, distribution and utilization of drugs.
Strategies:
• More investments are required to establish more health centers and to facilitate required equipment.
• Special training programm should be launched to train up the health workers on the critical health problems that the people mostly suffer.
• As there is capacity and resource constraints in the public sector, government should do more to involve non-government institutions and grass-root organizations by contracting out provision of services for the hard-to-reach poor.
• The revised National Drug Policy (NDP) is expected to reiterate the commitment of the Government and the local pharmaceutical companies to ensure the access of the people to affordable essential drugs.

3.b.3.3: Have halt by 2015 and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS
Situation Analysis:
It is estimated that the prevalence rate of HIV infection among adults (15-49 years) is less than 0.1 percent. As of end November 2003, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare reported a total of 363 cases. However, as there is no functional reporting system on HIV/AIDS and the information remains incomplete, Bangladesh is classified as a low HIV prevalence country. Nevertheless, latest surveys indicate a rapid increase of HIV positivity among injecting drug users (IDUs) from 1.7 percent in 2000 to 4 percent in 2002. Such concentrated HIV epidemic can have far reaching implications on HIV transmission to other vulnerable populations in the community .
Challenges and strategies:
In Bangladesh progress report (2005) on Millennium Development Goals, jointly prepared by the United Nations Country Team in Bangladesh and the Government of Bangladesh, identified the following challenges and strategies to overcome the challenges:
• While Bangladesh has a relatively low HIV prevalence, there are many factors that make it particularly vulnerable to HIV/AIDS. They include socio-economic and cultural factors that can only be addressed effectively through a multisectoral and multi-dimensional approach. Sentinel surveillance remains key to follow trends of HIV infection and behaviour change as well as to monitor the outcome and impact of responses to HIV/AIDS.
• Essential policy review and legal/law reform to enhance enabling environment and the impetus for HIV/AIDS prevention, care and support need to be promoted and facilitated by the different stakeholders.
• Initiatives should be intensified to mainstream HIV/AIDS into different public and private sectors and to ensure effective leadership support and involvement at all levels in advancement of appropriate measures to deal with HIV/AIDS.
• Since HIV/AIDS is a development concern all development and health programmes such as PRSP, Sector Wide Approach( SWAp )and Health, Nutrition and population Sector Programme (HNPSP) are expected to accord due prominence to and coverage of HIV/AIDS.

3.b.3.4:Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and tuberculosis
To achieve this target, Bangladesh will have to halve the one million people annually afflicted by malaria and reduce the number of deaths from one percent to half a percent by 2015. Also, by 2005, Bangladesh will have to increase the success rate of detection of tuberculosis cases under DOTS from 34 percent in 2000 to 70 percent, and the cure rate from 84 percent to 85 percent .
Situation Analysis
Malaria
Malaria is one of the major public health problems in Bangladesh. Out of 64 administrative districts, 13 belong to the high-risk malaria zone. An estimated one million clinical cases of malaria are treated every year. During 2002, the Annual Parasitic Incidence was 4.2 in the high endemic districts, leading to 61,495 laboratory-confirmed cases, and 598 reported deaths. Plasmodium falciparum is the predominant infection (61-71%) and An. dirus the principal vector. The current programme aims to reduce by 50 percent the incidence of cases and the number of deaths from malaria by the year 2015 .
Challenges and strategies:
Scaling up Insecticide Treated Netting (ITN) programme to achieve coverage up to 70 percent of 14.7 million high-risk population, especially in the remote, poor and tribal families remains a major challenge . To overcome the problem of drug resistance effective treatment and rapid diagnostic tests need to be introduced. To be fully effective, the current programme must substantially increase the number of trained manpower and malaria experts, at various levels.
Tuberculosis
Situation Analysis
Bangladesh ranks fourth on the list of the 22 highest TB burden countries in the world. In 2002, the incidence of all cases and of new smear-positive cases was estimated to be 233 and 105 per 100,000 respectively. About 70,000 patients die of TB each year. Bangladesh is committed to the 2005 international targets of detecting 70 percent and curing 85 percent of the detected smear-positive patients.
Eighty four percent of cases diagnosed in 2001 were cured under DOTS. In 2002 the case-detection rate of new smear-positive cases was 34 percent. Of the new smear positive patients, the M/F ratio was 1:0.44, which indicated an under diagnosis of female cases. Increased detection and cure of females will have a considerable impact on maternal mortality as TB has been found to be the major cause of maternal death in high TB burden, low-income countries .
Challenges and strategies:
The major challenge is to simultaneously increase case detection, maintain a high cure rate, and improve the quality of the diagnostic services. This calls for strengthening the management at central, divisional and district levels, intensifying effective partnerships and collaboration, expanding diagnostic and treatment services, implementing quality assurance of smear microscopy and BCG strategies, and strengthening monitoring and evaluation. Other essentials include human resources development and uninterrupted supply of drugs and laboratory provisions.

3.b.4:Improved hygiene and public health
Independent South Asian Commission on Poverty Alleviation identifies some key targets for improved hygiene and health. Key targets include access to safe drinking water and sanitation, raising awareness of important aspects of public and social hygiene e.g. washing of hands after visiting latrines, avoiding spitting and defecation in the open etc., effective enforcement of laws on banned substances .
Halve by 2015 the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe water and basic sanitation
In the case of Bangladesh the target is to increase coverage of safe water from 99 percent to 100 percent in urban areas and from 76 percent (arsenic-adjusted estimate) coverage to 96.5 percent in rural areas by 2015.
In addition, access to improved sanitation must be increased from 75 percent to 85.5 percent in urban areas, and from 39 percent to 55.5 percent in rural areas by 2015 .
Situation Analysis
In the case of Bangladesh, this MDG was modified to highlight the crucial role that access to water and to sanitation play in maintaining a healthy and productive population. Besides the global indicator of the proportion of population with sustainable access to an improved water source, a second indicator was included - the proportion of urban and rural population with access to improved sanitation.
3.b.4.1:Proportion of population with sustainable access to an improved water source
This indicator is defined as the percentage of the population who use any of the following types of water supply for drinking: piped water, public tap, borehole or pump, protected well, protected spring or rainwater. By this definition nearly 100 percent of the population in Bangladesh has access to water. However, over the last few years thousands of tube-wells have been found to be contaminated with naturally-occurring arsenic at higher than WHO-acceptable levels. If quality is taken into account, access to safe water drops to only 72 percent in rural areas. In spite of the fact that this is good coverage by developing country standards, it implies that 30 million people remain without access to safe water. Coverage in urban areas is 82 percent .


3.b.4.2:Proportion of the urban and rural population with access to improved sanitation
In rural areas access to improved sanitation has increased from 11 percent in 1990 to 29 percent in 2002. In the case of urban areas however, the situation has deteriorated, coverage dropping from 71 percent to 56 percent. This is mainly due to unbridled and unplanned urbanization that has been taking place in recent years.



(Source: Millennium Development Goals Bangladesh Progress Report, (2005), Jointly prepared by the United Nations Country Team in Bangladesh and the Government of Bangladesh,p-48)
Although technologies such as sewers, septic tanks, pour-flush latrines, simple pit latrines, and ventilated improved pit latrines contribute towards the achievement of target 10, additional factors also need to be taken into consideration. For example, it is essential in the case of simple pit latrines that excrete are adequately treated before being discharged into the environment.

Even in towns and cities with sewerage systems, discharges are passed untreated directly into the environment. Solid waste disposal remains an environmental sanitation hazard, especially in the urban areas.

The Government recognizes the importance of increasing access to sanitation. Following a major initiative that culminated in the South Asian Conference on Sanitation (SACOSAN) Conference in Dhaka in October 2003, the Government declared its own target of achieving 100 percent sanitation coverage by 2010, and has allocated two percent of its annual development budget for the task .



(Source: The Protom-Alo, October 1, 2005 )
In the year 2003, there was the occurrence of 42 percent spitting and defecation in the open place but it reduced to 20 percent by 2005. 70 percent of money was financed by the public for the creation of these large number of latrines.
Challenges
In Bangladesh progress report (2005) on Millennium Development Goals, jointly prepared by the United Nations Country Team in Bangladesh and the Government of Bangladesh, identified the following challenges:

Challenge 1: Ensuring 100 percent coverage of safe water
To be able to ensure nearly 100 percent coverage by 2015, at least 25 million people must gain access to arsenic-free, safe water over the next 10 years. This is a considerable challenge, since at present there is no effective solution for communities which are highly affected by arsenic. Technologies for removing arsenic from water are in the process of being introduced on a large scale.

Strategies:

As each option has some disadvantage for removing arsenic, communities and individuals will have to learn to use water from different sources for different purposes, if their water demands are to be met at an affordable cost.
This requires a level of sophistication by the consumer which has not been necessary in the past. Resources will therefore be required, not only to support the installation of water sources, but also to raise awareness and train communities in appropriate water use.
In the longer term, other issues are likely to arise in relation to access to safe water. In particular, there is growing concern regarding the availability of groundwater. Currently groundwater is used widely for irrigation, leading to a lowering of the water table. A proper groundwater management strategy will be necessary to safeguard the resource. Other problems include water salinity in coastal areas.

Challenge 2: Ensuring access to basic sanitation
If the health benefits of sanitation are to be fully realised, good hygiene practices such as washing hands at required times are crucial. It is important therefore to monitor indicators that include latrine coverage, the condition and use of sanitary facilities, and the adoption of good hygiene practices.

Strategies:
Regular national sanitation surveys can be used for tracking these indicators including the treatment of sewage and the collection and disposal of solid waste.

Challenge 3: Resources needed to meet the Target
It is estimated that US$64 million will be required to meet the water and sanitation goals by 2015 .

Strategies:
To be most effective, national processes such as Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, the Pro-Poor Strategy and the Sector Development Framework should coordinate efforts by the Government, NGOs and other stakeholders to achieve and even surpass the targets for water and sanitation under the various development initiatives.
Those segments of population who continue to be excluded from programmes that provide access to safe water and sanitation should be especially targeted. Strategies need to ensure that the poor and marginalized, such as slum dwellers in urban areas, are supported in appropriate ways.

3.c:Education
It is now widely agreed that there is an intimate and functional link between spread of literacy and education and poverty alleviation. The government of Bangladesh along with those of other South Asian countries is aware of this. Accordingly Bangladesh strives seriously to achieve universal literacy and quality education.

The Compulsory Primary Education Act, 1990, has made primary education in Bangladesh free and compulsory for all children. The Government is committed to the goals of the Dakar Framework Education for All (EFA) which aims at achieving the MDG targets by the year 2015. The National Plan of Action (NPA) also aims to achieve the six EFA Dakar goals by 2015.
To achieve MDG, Bangladesh must increase the primary school enrolment rate from about 73.3 percent in 1992 to 100 percent by 2015, increase the primary school completion rate from 62 percent in 1994 to 100 percent by 2015, and reduce the dropout rate from 38 percent in 1994 to 0 percent by 2015 .
3.c.1:Enrolment in primary/community school for all children:
Various data sources indicate that between 1994 and 2003 the primary school net enrolment rate has oscillated around 80 percent for 6-10 year old children. While the range indicates that the rates have been slightly higher for females (83-84%) compared to males (81-82%), the rate in case of female show a plateauing trend. Improvement in the enrolment rate occurred in account of increase in the Government’s budgetary allocation for girls’ education, free primary education, massive stipend programmes at the primary level, and the Food for Education Programme.
In the national endeavour for poverty alleviation Bangladesh sought to secure primary education for all including, particularly the poor. In order to promote further equity and access of underprivileged children to primary education, the Government replaced the Food for Education programme with a five-year countrywide Primary Education Stipend Project. In spite of these initiatives, however, some 2.4 million children in the age bracket 6-10 year are still not enrolled in primary schools. Taking into account demographic considerations and the rate of population growth, it is estimated that to meet MDG by 2015, the primary school enrolment rate should increase annually at a rate of 1.25 percent point for girls and 1.5 percent point for boys .


(Source: Millennium Development Goals Bangladesh Progress Report, (2005), Jointly prepared by the United Nations Country Team in Bangladesh and the Government of Bangladesh,p-12)
3.c.2:Completion of the primary education cycle:
While drop out rates in the primary school cycle have fallen from 38 percent in 1994 to 33 percent in 2004, the rates have been found to be higher (36%) in government schools compared to private ones (13%). Among those who are not enrolled and those who have dropped-out, a significant number come from poor households and live in rural areas, urban slums, coastal areas and the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT).
Repetition rates remain high (39%), implying that on average, a child needs 6.6 years to complete a five-year primary education cycle. Attendance rate in the year 2000 was about 58 percent, with girls having a slightly higher (60%) attendance rate compared to boys (57%).
Primary school completion depends on the ability of the system to prevent drop-outs and successfully deliver education services. Historically there is evidence of a strong upward trend. This has to continue to achieve the targets .
3.c.3: Adult Literacy
Various estimates indicate that adult (15 years +) literacy rate during 1990 - 2002 ranged between 37 and 61 percent, with urban rates higher (64%) than rural (46%). In spite of women’s literacy rate increasing steadily since 1990, male rates remained higher (61%) than female (43%) in 2000 .
3.c.4: Quality of Education
Although primary school completion rates show an increasing trend, there is concern over the quality of education and the competency level of primary school graduates. The reasons for the lack of quality in education services include insufficient contact hours and unfavourable student-teacher ratio. The contact hours of 120 minutes per day for classes I-II and 240 minutes for classes III-V are significantly low compared to those in the countries in the region. Moreover, the 59 students to one teacher ratio is unfavourable for maintaining quality education. The ratio is more skewed in government primary schools (66 students to a teacher) compared to private schools (43 students to a teacher). Population demographics and Government efforts to achieve the EFA targets, indicate that this unfavourable trend will increase over the years unless proper balancing measures are introduced.
Current Government interventions for improving the quality of primary education is concentrated in five areas – organizational management, schools and classrooms, infrastructure development, support to equitable access, and management and monitoring .
The Cost of Achieving the goal
In order to estimate the cost of achieving the goal, three population scenarios were considered – population stabilizing by 2035, by 2040, and by 2050. The financing was derived from three primary sources: households, government and external. At the most optimistic scenario of population stabilization by 2035, to achieve this MDG nearly 17 million children will have to be covered in 2005, and in 2015, 213 million will have to be reached. For the least optimistic scenario of population stabilization by 2050, the target population to be covered will reach 220 million in 2015.
Under the circumstances, if population stabilizes by 2035, the total primary education programme cost will require $928 million in 2005, steadily increasing to an amount of $1.7 billion in 2015. Of this expenditure domestic financing must cover US$ 564 million in 2005, rising to over one billion dollars in 2015. The parallel external financing needs will be $364 million dollars in 2005, culminating at $666 million in 2015 .
Challenges
The situation analysis of primary education in Bangladesh indicates a positive trend towards the achievement of this MDG. To ensure that this trend continues several challenges will have to be met by the development partners.
Challenge 1: Meeting the cost of education
Under the most optimistic scenario of population stabilization by 2035, Bangladesh will need $928 million in 2005, the amount increasing annually to reach $1.7 billion by 2015 to maintain the momentum for achieving this MDG. About 40% of this will need to come from external financing. That is, external financing needs in 2005 will be $364 million increasing annually to reach $666 million in 2015. Government share of the cost will be $352 million in 2005, rising to $669 million in 2015.
Challenge 2: The primary school enrolment rate has to grow by 1.25 percent point a year for girls and 1.5 percent point for boys
One of the main challenges to be faced by the development partners is the stabilization of population to ensure containment of expenditure and to provide quality primary level education. It is estimated that if population is stabilized earliest by 2035, more than 8 million girls and 11 million boys will need to receive primary education in 2015.
Taking into account the rate of population growth of relevant age groups, and the enrolment and drop-out rates, it is estimated that to reach nearly 100 percent by 2015, the primary school enrolment rate has to grow annually by of 1.25 percent age point for girls and at 1.5 percent age point for boys .
Challenge 3: The excluded population
Among those who are not enrolled and those who have dropped-out, a significant number come from poor households and live in rural areas, urban slums, coastal areas and the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT). It is estimated that they currently total some 2.4 million in number. These children must be brought into the national compulsory primary education system.
Challenge 4: Quality education
The I-PRSP projection of public expenditure on education as percentage of GDP indicates a gradual increase from 2.62 percent in FY2004, to 2.81 percent in FY2005, and to 2.93 percent in FY2006 . If this scenario is realized and GDP continues to grow at the current rate and the National Plan of Action on education is implemented according to schedule, the quality and quantity of education can be improved to achieve the MDG for primary education. Additional support will however, also be needed for technical and managerial capacity building of the government departments and NGOs at all levels.
Challenge 5: Late entry into the schooling system
Late entry into the schooling system is widespread and potentially curtails enrollment and attainment. Analyzing school attendance in Bangladesh by single-year age group provides some interesting insights into the pattern of school enrollments in the country. Based on data from the 2000 Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES), about ninety percent of children aged 9 years were found to be attending school, but the share was as low as fifty percent amongst those aged 6 years. The proportion of children attending school rises steadily with age. However, late entry into the schooling system means that overall roughly one out of four children aged 6-10 years are currently not in school, and a sizeable fraction of the school-going aged children are enrolled in a grade behind their target-age grade.
Challenge 6: Governance
Governance is a key constraint on improving the quality of education expenditures. A recent survey on governance problems in Bangladesh found growing dissatisfaction among the parents of school children with the quality of education in general and most acutely with schools at the primary level. Where 22 percent had registered their unhappiness with education standards in a similar survey five years ago, 30 percent took that negative view in the current survey. Underlying the dissatisfaction with publicly funded education were some perceptions of corruption and negligence in the Directorate of Primary Education, general concern about the influence of wealth on access to schooling and specific complaints about teachers giving private students priority over public ones. Another weakness in the system appears to be the supply of textbooks, especially in rural areas where 67 percent of the households report difficulties in getting textbooks. The main problems cited were delayed supply (39 percent), extra payment (40 percent) and the need to buy textbooks instead of getting them free of cost (17 percent) .
Strategies:
• Raise the amount of public resources development of basic education.
• Continue to improve access and equity.
• Establish better partnerships with relevant stakeholders ( parents, communities, non-government institutions, etc) to improve quality of education services.
• Provide adequate teacher training and other needed pedagogical inputs.
• Undertake better assessments of learning and outcomes.
• Arrangement of a minimally rational school infrastructure, i.e. 1 room each for each of the five primary grades.
• Improve management and accountability, reduce corruption and waste and de-politicize the education system.
• Decentralization of management at primary and secondary levels to improve governance.
3.d:Investment:

3.d.1:Attract investment
With the growth of foreign direct investment (FDI) in the last couple of years, Bangladesh has advanced to the 122nd position from the previous 133rd in the World Investment Report (WIR) 2005 index of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). The report said improved investment environment and the privatisation of assets are the reasons behind the high FDI flow in Bangladesh in 2004 .
Net foreign direct investment (FDI) in Bangladesh rose by 72 percent to US$ 460 million in 2004, up US$ 195 million from 2003, said World Investment Report 2005.The growth is the second highest in South Asia while Pakistan secured the first position with 74 percent FDI growth in the same period. The report forecast increased FDI inflow in the coming years primarily because of a rise in investment by India .

Board of Investment (BOI) of Bangladesh and Tata Group of India jointly signed an Expression of Interest (EOI) regarding BOI facilitation of Tata’s investment proposal of about US$ 2.0 billion. Tata expressed their keen interest to invest in basic steel, power and fertilizer . Egyptian telecom giant Orascom already has invested $150 million in Bangladesh's mobile phone sector and another $150 million is expected by early 2006. Dubai-based Abu Dhabi Group plans to pump about $800 million into the country's telecom sector and proposes to invest more than $2 billion in the country's burgeoning pharmaceutical and tourism sectors over the next two to three years. In the natural resources sector, High-Tech International Group of Saudi Arabia is considering a $2 billion deal to set up oil refinery plants in Bangladesh over the next two to three years. Negotiations are also under way with China Metallurgical Construction group to set up a $200 million methanol plant. US oil company UNOCAL, already a player in Bangladesh's energy industry, is expected to invest more than $40 million this year to develop a natural gas field. Taiwanese Textile industry is also expected to invest up to a billion dollars in Bangladesh's textile sector starting from 2006.
United Nations resident coordinator in Bangladesh Jorgen Lissner, expressed his guarded optimism over the future investment scenario of Bangladesh. Terming the country as the Asian Tiger, Lissner said: " (But) the tiger can not jump or leap forward." He said Bangladesh has many positive achievements, including laudable export growth, strong inflow of remittances sent by expatriates and comfortable foreign exchange reserves. "Bangladesh could have been a good fisherman had not its rivers been polluted." he said. Lissner said that Bangladesh should address issues such as political disputes, general strikes and corruption to sustain and enhance its achievements .
Though World Investment Report (WIR) 2005 index of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) indicate the advancement of Bangladesh, yet to travel a long road. The government of Bangladesh, in its Industrial Policy 1999, offered a number of incentives for private investors, particularly for foreign investors.

Investors are of the view that while government policies look very good on paper, the problems lie in their implementation. There is always a long delay in transmitting policy decisions from the policy-making level to the implementation level. So government should take steps for proper implementation of the policies. The following recommendations should be taken under consideration:
• All measures under existing laws should be undertaken to improve the law and order situation and curb political unrest to provide security to investors.
• All illegal trade union activities and unfair practices by labour unions/CBAs must be severely dealt with under the existing laws.
• One Stop Service in Board of investment provide by nine organizaions should be made effective by strategic delegation of powers to Members of the Team and with the needed prompt back-up managerial support from the concerned parent bodies.
• All investment related laws which have not yet been updated may be updated at the earliest in the light of present day requirements. Cumbersome legal procedures of dispute settlement should be remedied soon.
• Government may encourage the private sector to promote a congenial working environment for women workers including provision of accommodation, low cost day-care centres and health care for their infant children near industrial centres.
• Government may contract out many of its functions to private sector, such as collecting, compiling and disseminating data and information on industrial development, tax incentives, monetary and financial matters, etc.
• All industrial parks whether in the public or in the private sectors should be encouraged to organize their own security systems, and to promote mini-utility companies for reliable supply of power, water, gas and other essential utility services.
• Bangladesh Missions abroad should boost up and improve the image of the country to attract foreign investment.
• Necessary measures should be taken to facilitate the introduction of E-trade and E-commerce to ensure security of transactions and prevent fraud and forgery and strengthen the institutional capacity of business organizations.
• The on-going banking reform programme should be pushed ahead with relentless vigor in order to tackle, as soon as possible, the serious problems of bad debts, inadequacy of capital and classified loan .

3.d.2:Investment in the targeted sector:
The arms race is increasingly a worldwide phenomenon. It represents a waste of resources and it’s a diversion away from the countries humanitarian development efforts and a threat to democratic processes. Exacerbated by the population explosion, the food crisis and the devastation’s of natural disasters and war, the problems of eradicating poverty and of improving standards of health, nutrition, education and housing have reached a stage of crisis in many parts of the world. No less important problems are those of industrialization and growth in developing countries, of combating and degradation of the environment, of developing new sources of energy and raw materials while preserving presently available sources, of halting the degradation of cities and many others. All of these compete for investment, research and other resources with military claims. The vast benefits which could result from even trifling cuts in military expenditures and reallocation of the funds thus saved are obvious.
There is no doubt that as a developing country such as Bangladesh, it is unnecessary to incur disproportionately high military expenditure. Defence and internal security are important; expenditures have to be kept to the minimum. A statistical data is given below about the military expenditures of the past years .

(in crore taka)
Year 2004-2005 2005-2006
Budget Budget Revised Budget Budget Revised Budget
Taka 3901 4,115 4,320 -


The expenditure has been increasing gradually from the past years. In the 2002-03 budget, 39.00 billion taka/ US$ 645m (approximately) was allocated for defence expenditure which was 8.8% of revenue income. For the Fiscal Year 2005-2006, the proposed budget of Tk 432.00 billion/ US$ 720m showed an increase of Tk 4.19 billion /US$ 68m over FY 2004-05 which was Tk 390.10 billion/ US$ 652m.

Fig: Budget Expenditure

There are also a huge amount of hidden expenses allocated in defence budget. In a round table meeting regarding “ The revenue expenditure in the non-productive sectors in the national budget of Bangladesh versus human development” Mr. Abul Barkat, Secretary, Bangladesh Economic Association said that the hidden expenditure is never disclosed to the public. He mentioned that the buying of 8 Mig-29 plane by 100.00 billion taka by the previous government (1996-2001) was not on the basis of priority. In the round table it was mentioned that with these resources Bangladesh could totally eradicate Tuberculosis and Leprosy or decrease maternal death 4.33 to 1.5 or decreased child morality 57 percent to 35 percent or can employ 15,000 primary school teachers for 20 years or can increase 14% coverage of irrigation which will increase 20% food production.
The office of comptroller and Auditor General ( CAG) has raised 31 audit objections involving Tk 480.33 million to the expenditure on defence. The CAG office report was placed in parliament but the defence ministry has not yet replied to any of those. The CAG office detected the irregularities mainly in the defence ministry’s pooling resources and in distributing those among army, navy and air force in FY 1997 to 2002. The repot said it found that a loss of TK 100 million was incurred through purchase of ammunition that was canceled by the chief of the Inspector Ammunition and Explosive. It also found that about TK 90.88 million has gone down the drain for procurement of tank transporter, which too was earlier cancelled by the inspection office. About TK 20.00 million has been wasted by buying adulterated milk powder for the armymen . In a resource-scarce country, such as Bangladesh, the people continues to fight poverty. Article 3 of the social charter adopted by 12th SAARC Summit states that State parties affirm that highest priority shall be accorded to the alleviation of poverty in all South Asian countries. Recognizing that South Asia’s poor could constitute a huge and potential resource, provided their basic needs are met and they are mobilized to create economic growth, state–parties reaffirm that the poor should be empowered and irreversibly linked to the mainstream of development. They also agree to take appropriate measure to create income generation activities for the poor.
Bangladesh needs economic reforms to reduce the poverty which creates serious obstacles to development. In this context unnecessarily high military expenditure hampers balanced growth and development of the country and therefore it should be optimized.

3.e:Infrastructure and connectivity:

3.e.1:Strengthening connectivity of poorer regions and of poor as social groups:
Remoteness from the mainstream of economic and social life is an important aspect of the poverty experience. Redressing such remoteness and strengthening connectivity through roads, railways, waterways, telephone, internet, etc will be a priority .
3.e.1.1:Communication:
Bangladesh is crisscrossed by hundreds of rivers and their tributaries. So waterways are the main way of communication in Bangladesh. But in many ways it obstructed to siltation and shortage of water. Bangladesh has roads of about two hundred and forty one thousand Km. It stood at four thousand Km before the liberation of the country in 1971. Bangladesh has also a railway network of 2854.96 km. In the FY 2004-2005, Bangladesh government allocated 396.841 billion taka for the development of communication .
Challenges:
Challenge1: lack of bridge and culvert
As Bangladesh is a riverine country and expose to rains during a large part of the year it becomes difficult to use roads as means of communication the year round. Because the establishment of roads become more expansive.
Challenge2: reduction of navigability of waterways
Various reasons like siltation, withdrawal of water from upper stream etc reduce the navigability of our waterways.
Challenge3: build roads on the basis of economic priority
Roads should be built on the basis of economic priority. Sometimes roads are built for political reason. This should be avoided.
Challenge4: quality of roads and removal of corruption
Because of corruption the high quality of roads is not ensured. This should be avoided.
Strategies:
• Adoption of a rational investment program.
• Increase the navigability of the waterways.
• Built bridge and culvert on the basis of priority.
• Institutional reform.
• Labor rationalization of the railway.
• Remove corruption and ensure quality of roads.

3.e.1.2:ICT sector:
ICT can play a pivotal role in effective poverty alleviation. India is an example of success in this region. In India, ‘E-Choupal’ model was developed to leverage information technology to provide information to farmers on different products and services that they need to enhance farm productivity, get better price realization, reduce transaction costs in input purchases and product marketing. farm productivity, get better price realization and reduce transaction costs in input purchases and product marketing. E-Choupal enables farmers to access current local and global information on weather, scientific farming practices as well as market prices for the inputs and products in the villages themselves through the web-portal. E-Choupal was first launched in June 2000 in Madhya Pradesh for soybeans. It is presently functioning in over 4500 villages through 770 kiosks in Madhya Pradesh, Karnatka, Andhra Pradesh & Uttar Pradesh. The Choupals in different States cover different products. Aqua –Choupal in Andhra Pradesh covers fisheries, plantersnet.com in Karnataka is for coffee and in Uttar Peadesh wheat transactions take place in the Choupals .
Besides this, we can create a lot of employment opportunities and earn a lot of money by providing various ICT related services e.g. Medical Transcription, Data Entry, Data Processing, Call Centers etc. By developing required manpower skill, we can also enter the booming software industry to enjoy its benefit. We can accelerate our business through E-Commerce. With the help of Tele-Medicine, the poor can get excess to better treatment facilities.
Through introduction of E-Governance, ICT sector can bring transparency and accountability in governance. It also brings efficiency and effectiveness in the government. It will be effective also for disaster management and mitigation. After the hurricane “Katrina” in USA, it played a very important role specially tracking the missing members of families and providing guidelines or post-disaster management.

Situation Analysis

The diffusion of personal computers in Bangladesh users market started in the mid 1990s and progressed at a rate slower than in other countries in the region. From a historical perspective the first main frame computer was introduced in the country in 1968 and the first PC was purchased in 1981. High cost and limited access to technology slowed the diffusion of PCs.
The recent increase in PC density was due to improvement of computing technology leading to worldwide drop in price, and the Government’s withdrawal of all forms of taxes and duties from this sector. Further Government reforms to promote this sector include the formation of the Bangladesh Telecom Regulatory Commission, and opening up of the fixed phone market to private entrepreneurs.
Bangladesh went “online” in mid-1996, at around the same time as most South-Central Asian countries. Reliance solely on satellite solutions, has however, translated into limited bandwidth and slow access speeds.
To circumvent such problems, Bangladesh has been connected in June 2006 to the global fiber optic link through the submarine cable consortium. To distribute this huge bandwidth the Bangladesh Telegraph and Telephone Board is actively considering some action plans under a project that will connect the national network with the global Internet backbone via high-speed fiber optic link.
Government has also established a “ICT Incubator Center” in Dhaka at Kaoran Bazar to help this sector.
Challenges
Challenge 1: Improving infrastructure
Though Bangladesh government declared ICT sector as a thrust sector, the required infrastructure are not develop yet properly. Government needs to take many more effective measures in this sector.
Challenge 2: Increasing PC diffusion
The growth of Internet users is further impeded by a number of factors, that include low PC diffusion in the country; low literacy rate; lack of infrastructure such as teledensity for Internet connections; lack of localized content and operating system. Internet reach is however steadily increasing mainly due to the proliferation of cyber-cafés and kiosks.
Challenge 3:Skilled manpower
To develop required skill manpower is another challenge.
Challenge 4: Language
To get maximum benefit from the ICT sector, the local language, Bangla should be introduced.
Strategies:
• Develop infrastructure.
• Special measure should be taken to use local software.
• Immediate action should be taken to use Bangla in computer.
• Legalize the use of VOIP (Voice Over Internet Protocal).
• Start E-Governance.

3.e.1.3:Telephone:

Development in the third world has often meant the emergence of isolated pockets of modernization, sheltering higher strata that have richer and different economic strength and life style. On account of their limited resources large swathes of society remain unaffected by new technology and opportunities. But if that divide can be broken beneficial results may follow for the larger segments of poorer people. The introduction of village Pay Phone (VPP) in rural Bangladesh based on use of cellular technology represents a unique experiment in high-tech communication in a traditional low-tech setting. An initiative of Grameen Bank, VPP has been a successful attempt to leapfrog the technological barrier for rural areas where the prospect for expansion of the government-run telephone system remains rather distant. Poor rural women selected from amongst Grameen borrowers are given a loan to acquire a cell phone from Grameen Telecom. The operator utilizes the cell phone for the village population. These women have gained social recognition as ‘telephone ladies’ in their localities and they are seen to provide a key service to the community often ensuring that overseas migrant workers can talk directly with their families or farmers can access relevant market information. Increased labour mobility and greater market integration indeed has created a significant demand for telephone services amongst the rural population including the rural poor. The VPP thus fulfills growing social needs. At the same time, it acts as a direct vehicle for poverty alleviation as it allows the operators to significantly enhance their income levels often averaging between 100 to 200 dollars a month .

Table: distribution of the purpose of the last five calls made. No. of cases

Last Five Call Purpose of calls
Business Official Social Health Political
1st call 38.00 3.20 55.70 1.90 1.30
2nd call 35.70 3.20 58.90 0.60 0
3rd call 36.10 4.40 57.60 0.60 0.60
4th call 36.10 3.80 58.20 0.60 0.60
5th call 39.20 3.80 55.70 0.60 0.60
Average 37.02 3.68 57.22 0.86 0.74

The most pronounced impacts were found with regard to a general reduction of transaction costs and uncertainty (reduced need for travel, quicker access to information, more choice). The isolation of many villages has been reduced. The most frequent user groups were traders and businessmen. For women the VPP was an important channel for family contacts and communications, especially with husbands living abroad as migrant workers.

Table: How VPP has changed the life situation of respondents

Modes of empowerment via VPP % of owners % of users
Income is increased 95.20 43.80
Gets opportunities to take part in decision making 55.40 46.90
Social networks have been widened 96.40 86.70
Considered as a source of information 75.90 45.30
Involved in business transactions 72.30 58.60
Gets more access to latest information 75.90 75.80
Gets to know to more people 96.40 64.30
% based on cases, not on response. Because of Multiple Responses, total exceeded 100%.
Observations of impacts of the VPP on the socio-economic and political relations of individuals in Bangladeshi villages suggest a border transformative potential of the VPP.
Situation analysis:
After near stagnation in the growth of telecommunication subscribers, a marked increase was seen from the late 1990s to the early 2000s. This surge is mainly due to the advent of cellular telephony in Bangladesh and the almost exponential increase in the number of cellular telephone subscribers.
Bangladesh’s cellular phone subscribers outnumber the fixed line subscribers and have a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 110.5 percent, a figure that is almost three times the global average . This statistic reflects the high demand for telecommunication services, and one that is not being catered to by the fixed line operator. In spite of its annual growth rate being almost double that of global average, the state-owned fixed line telephone company is constantly struggling to meet the increasing demands for its services.
From the base year 1990 until 2002 there has been a nearly 600 percent growth in the sector as a whole. Although this growth figure is encouraging, the telecommunication reach, in terms of per 100 population for Bangladesh, still remains one of the lowest in the region. Actually the Tele-density in Bangladesh is very low. At present it is 4.8.Though the numbers of mobile phone increase rapidly in recent days. But that hasn’t reached to the satisfactory level yet. At present five mobile operators are now working with 110 lacs subscribers .

(Source: Bangladesh Economic Review,2005, p-200)
To meet the huge demand of fixed Telephone, government has now allowed the private sector to come into the field, 15 companies 37 licenses to work in four zones (except Dhaka zone) . At present there are 8,00,000 fixed phone subscribers but its is expected that the number will exceed 2.5 million within 2 years.
Challenges:
a) Infrastructure: Required infrastructure development is the key challenge of the spread of telephone.
b) Corruption: Getting telephone in due time from the BTTB is a major problem in Bangladesh. One of the main reasons of the creation of such situation is corruption.

Strategies:
• Establish digital exchange in all Upozilas (Sub-districts – 467).
• Take steps to reduce the call charges of mobile companies.
• Reduce government taxes.
• Give permission to operate VOIP.
• Government can hand over the management of the fixed phone to the private sector.

3.e.2:Energy sector
Bangladesh has small reserves of oil and coal, but has a relatively larger amount of natural gas resources. Commercial energy consumption is around 66 percent natural gas, with the remainder mostly oil (plus limited amounts of hydropower and coal). About 20 percent of the population (25 percent in urban areas and 10 percent in rural areas) has access to electricity, and per capita commercial energy consumption is among the lowest in the world. Noncommercial energy sources, such as wood, animal wastes, and crop residues, are estimated to account for over half of the country's energy consumption. The World Bank has estimated that Bangladesh loses around $1 billion per year in economic output on account of power outages and unreliable energy supplies .
Bangladesh's Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (MEMR) has overall responsibility for the country's energy sector, controlling both policy formulation and investment decisions. Within MEMR, the "Power Cell" acts as a single point of contact to facilitate the electricity reform and restructuring process, including the development of Independent Power Projects (IPPs).

Energy supply:
Biomass accounts for a significant share(55%) in Bangladesh. The biomass fuel is a renewable source of energy consisting primarily of agricultural residues, tree residues, fuel wood, and dung. Commercial energy sources are natural gas (24%),imported oil and coal (19%), and hydroelectricity (2%) (GOB, 1998). Except natural gas, all commercial fuels are imported in different quantities.

NATURAL GAS
Natural gas is Bangladesh's only significant source of commercial energy, with 2003 production of 420.2 billion cubic feet (Bcf). Bangladeshi natural gas production began in 1960 from the Chattak Field. There is much uncertainty and debate about the size of Bangladesh's natural gas reserves. Whereas January 1, 2005 estimates by the Oil and Gas Journal put the country's proven natural gas reserves at 10.6 trillion cubic feet (Tcf), mid-2004 estimates from Petrobangla put net proven reserves at 15.3 Tcf. The US Geological Survey has estimated that Bangladesh contains 32.1 Tcf of additional "undiscovered reserves." Bangladesh may have the potential to become a major gas producer, as well as supplier to the vast potential market in neighboring India.

Bangladesh's natural gas demand is expected by some independent analysts to grow by around 6 percent annually over the next two decades. Potential uses for natural gas in Bangladesh include petrochemicals, compressed natural gas (CNG) for vehicles, power generation, and fertilizer. CNG already is used to fuel over 20,000 vehicles, mainly in the Dhaka and Chittagong area. Bangladesh also contains around 55 million barrels of natural gas liquids (NGLs), which could be used for petrochemicals production or as a cooking fuel. Besides foreign energy companies, natural gas in Bangladesh is produced by two subsidiaries of Petrobangla -- Sylhet Gas Fields Ltd. and Bangladesh Gas Fields Co. Ltd. -- for domestic consumption. Over 80 percent of the natural gas is consumed for power and fertilizer production, and the remainder by industry and households.

Petrobangla has approximately 20 natural gas fields, half of which are active. In March 2004, Unocal, the largest foreign investor in Bangladesh's natural gas sector, shelved a proposal to export gas from the Bibiyana field to India, given the political obstacles to exports. Unocal plans to develop its assets in Bangladesh for sales to the domestic market. India's Tata Group has recently shown interest in Bibiyana gas. In August and September 2003, ChevronTexaco and Shell sold their natural gas assets in Bangladesh to Canada's Niko Resources and Cairn Energy, respectively. In November 2004, Niko Resources and Tullow Oil, the operator of Block 9, reported natural gas flowing at up to 120 million cubic feet (Mmcf) from the Bangora-1 well. In September 2004, Niko Resources announced that its Feni Block test well was producing at a rate of 32 Mmcf/d. In August 2005, Cairn Energy's PSC for Block 16 in the Bay of Bengal was extended until May 2008. Over the next three years, Cairn plans to drill three exploration wells in the block at a cost of $50 million.

In 2005, two blowouts occurred at the Chattak-2 well in the Tengratila gas field, operated by Niko Resources under a joint venture with Bapex. The first took place in January and led to $2.5 million in losses and significant damage to the local environment. Although the site was secured, a second blowout occurred in late June. An inquiry committee formed to investigate the incidents has net yet submitted a report. As of early August 2005, the fire from the second blowout reportedly continues to burn out of control.

In March 2005, the state-run Gas Authority of India Ltd. (GAIL) signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with the Bangladesh Business Development Corp. Ltd. (NNCL) to co-operate in gas transmission, pipeline and distribution network development in Bangladesh. This follows a February 2005 MOU signed by GAIL and Bangladesh's Spectra Group to develop compressed natural gas (CNG) pipelines and retail outlets in Bangladesh. Tullow Oil also won state approval in March 2005 to build a pipeline and gas processing plant.

In January 2005, Bangladesh agreed to allow a proposed 559-mile pipeline to transport natural gas from Burma (Myanmar) to India through its territory. Bangladesh's approval for the tri-nation gas pipeline, however, was contingent upon several trade concessions including the removal of tariff, non-tariff and administrative barriers to help Dhaka close its trade deficit with India, access to hydroelectricity from Nepal and Bhutan and the establishment of a free trade corridor to these countries. According to the plans, Bangladesh's Gas Transmission Co. would manage the 180 miles of the pipeline in its territory and the country would earn annual transit fees of $125 million dollars. As Bangladesh has continued to demand these trade concessions, India and Burma (Myanmar) have begun to consider alternatives such as a pipeline that bypasses Bangladesh (undersea or on land through northeastern India) or LNG shipments. These options, however, are more costly. While India and Bangladesh continue their bilateral negotiations to resolve these issues, the future of the pipeline project remains uncertain .

COAL
Bangladesh began its first significant coal production in April 2003 at the Barapukuria coal mine in the Dinjapur area of northwest Bangladesh. Around 2,000 million tons of coal have been discovered in five close locations, and are in the process of development:
• Barapukuria in Dinanjpur district, reserve of 390 million tons,
• Dighirpar in Dinajpur district, reserve under appraisal,
• Phulbari in Dinanjpur district, reserve of 522 million tons,
• Jamalganji in Jaipurhat district, reserve of 1,050 million tons and
• Khalaspir in Rangpur district, reserve of 143 million tons.

In June 2005, a consortium of the China National Machinery Import and Export Corporation (CMC) and the Xuzhou Coal Mining Group Company Ltd. signed a contract to run the management and production of the Barapukuria mine. The project is expected to produce about one million short tons of coal per year, primarily for electricity generation. A possible coal mining project at Khalashpir is also under consideration.

In July 2005, Australia's Asia Energy Corp. submitted a $1.4 billion plan to develop a coal mine in the Phulbari region. The Phulbari mine, which is located approximately 12 miles from the Indian border, is expected to begin production in 2007 .

ELECTRICITY
Bangladesh's installed electricity generating capacity in 2003 was 3.6 gigawatts (GW) (94 percent - thermal, 6 percent - hydroelectric), at 18 power stations. However, only two-thirds of Bangladesh's total electricity generating capacity is considered to be "available." Problems in the Bangladeshi electric power sector include high system losses (up to 40 percent), delays in completion of new plants, low plant efficiencies, inadequate natural gas availability, erratic power supply, electricity theft, blackouts, shortages of funds for power plant maintenance, and unwillingness of customers to pay bills. Overall, the country's generation plants have been chronically unable to meet system demand over the past decade. With only about 20 percent of the population connected to the electricity grid, and with power demand growing rapidly, Bangladesh's Power System Master Plan (PSMP) projects a required doubling of electricity generating capacity by 2010. In addition, Bangladesh may need to replace 30 to 40 percent of its current generating capacity, due to aging infrastructure.

The Padma-Jamuna-Meghna river system divides Bangladesh into Eastern and Western zones. The East contains nearly all of the country's electricity generating capacity, while the West, with almost no natural resources, must import power from the East. A 230-kilovolt (kV) power transmission line, completed in 1982, connects the East to the West. The major portion of Bangladesh's electricity (78 percent) is consumed in the East, with greater Dhaka alone consuming around 50 percent.

Through the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, the Bangladeshi government owns and supervises the Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB). BPDB is an integrated utility that distributes electricity to retail consumers, as well as to two other distribution utilities -- the Dhaka Electric Supply Authority (DESA, established in 1991), and the Rural Electrification Board (REB, established in 1977).

Given Bangladesh's electricity supply shortage, in 1996 the government issued the "Private Sector Power Generation Policy of Bangladesh" and began to solicit proposals from international companies for IPPs for an estimated 3144 MW electricity generation. In addition to large IPP projects, in April 1998, Bangladesh adopted a "Small Power Generation Policy," which encourages development of small local generation projects of up to 10-MW in capacity in underserved areas. The country has an active rural electrification program, which is to receive $280 million from the Asian Development Bank (ADB) under a program announced in December 2003. All of these initiatives aim to increase power generation and to reduce the country's power shortage significantly, with a goal of universal electrification by 2020.

In April 2005, China and Bangladesh signed an agreement on nuclear cooperation. Under the agreement, Bangladesh is to receive Chinese assistance in exploration for nuclear materials and construction of a 600-MW nuclear power plant.

Discussions have been underway for several years about the possibility of Bangladesh connecting its electric grid to those of India, Nepal, and Bhutan. Nepal and Bhutan have substantial untapped hydroelectricity potential, which could be exported to India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. In March 1999, India's Power Grid Corporation completed a feasibility study on possible exchange of 150 MW of power between Bangladesh and India. .

OIL
For liquid oil, Bangladesh is almost entirely dependent on imports from various countries. For this reason the fluctuation of oil price effected the countries economy.
What needs to be done?
• Attract foreign investment and make quick arrangement to use that investment.
• Explore all avenues of alternative power sources e.g. solar energy, wind energy, biogas etc.
• To consider renewable energy as one of the important energy sources in the national energy mix.
• Reduce system loss.
• Increase the use of energy saving equipment.
• Increase the efficiency of energy production and distribution so that the loss of energy can be reduced.
• Study the feasibility of the installation of nuclear power plant.
• Increase regional cooperation so that one country can use the excess energy of other countries.
• All the contracts in this sector should be made public and all care should be taken to protect national interest in signing the agreements.

3.e.3: Water resources management
Bangladesh is a nation where agricultural production is still the mainstay of the rural population's livelihood system, and therefore its people's livelihoods are still inextricably linked to the nation’s water cycle. The water resources in the country, both above and below ground, provide a multitude of services to the population: water to drink, water for irrigation, water for fish resources and for transport and other uses. These resources are the raw materials that support a population with complex, interwoven and overlapping livelihood strategies and they are being placed under increasing stress.
Water resources, present as surface stocks such as lakes or ponds, flows (rivers) or groundwater reserves (aquifers or soil moisture) are all used directly in activities undertaken to sustain a livelihood or, to support ecosystems which in turn support a variety of livelihood activities. The utilisation of these sources by a variety of resource users or "stakeholders" means that multiple interests are operating at any one time. These uses often occur in harmony but can be incompatible, as one use lessens the resource's availability and utility for others downstream. Wisely managed, water means adequate harvests, health, prosperity, peace and a stable environment; badly managed, water brings poverty, disease, disasters, degraded environments, social conflict or dispute and even war. These interactions are shown in the following Figure, which is an attempt at a schematic representation of how water resources and their uses are inter-linked in the activities that constitute the livelihoods of rural people in Bangladesh.

Figure : Water Resources-Utilisation Relationships

Although abstract, the model is based on the starting point for local people – the use of specific resources (an aquifer, a stream or rainfall) for particular uses (irrigation, fishing and drinking) by specific groups (the farmers, fishermen and women).
This is the reality around which decisions on and perceptions of the management and potential of water resources are based; a person is concerned with whether his tubewell will provide enough irrigation water, whether there are fish in the lake or whether the water in a stream is available and clean enough to be used for the family.
These resource-use combinations take place within a local social and institutional setting that is crucial in defining how the resources are managed and allocated, and in particular the form that the rights and entitlements of access to the resources held by different sections of the community take. It also defines norms, customs and obligations that may be as important as the formal institutions in moulding the patterns of resource use and management.
These local-level patterns of management of water resources, and the context within which they take place, interact with and are influenced by the external legal, policy and institutional contexts that determine many aspects of local change and development. This includes the functioning and impact of the specific areas of policy (water, land, fish, environment and others), also includes markets as well as the wider framework of laws, government policies and the actions of government agencies.
Neighboring India recently finalized a master plan unilaterally to link 30 major international rivers and transfer their flow to central, western and southern India at an estimated cost of US $ 120 billion. The Supreme Court of India has asked the Indian Government to implement the plan by the year 2016 . The project aims to connect the rivers in the country for diverting water from 'surplus eastern rivers to water deficit areas' and at improving the situation of recurring flood and drought. The project also aims at producing nearly 34,000 megawatt of hydroelectricity and increasing food production from US $ 40 per acre to over US $500.
According to an estimate of 1974, the cost for implementation of the proposal would be around 240.95 billion Indian rupee.
According to the National Water Development Agency (NWDA) of India the origin of the river linking project (RLP) of India lies in the plan of Dr. K. L. Rao, the irrigation minister of the Nehru Cabinet. The plan of Dr. Rao proposed links between the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, Mahanadi and Narmada rivers through canals. It was hoped that the 2640 km long Ganges-Caveri link canal would bring additional 4 million hector land under agriculture. The cost for implementation of the proposal was estimated at 125.00 billion Indian rupee. An estimate of 1995 shows that the Ganges-Cuvery link canal alone would cost 700.00 billion Indian rupee.
The institutional process of keeping the RLP alive started in 1980 when the Water Resource Ministry of India adopted a National Perspective Plan (NPP). The NPP consists of two parts, one of which deals with River Development of the Himalayan. This part proposes 21 links and it is this part that will affect the rivers flowing through Bangladesh.
Subsequently NWDA was created to assess the feasibility of link canals under the NPP. The NWDA identified 30 link canals for the feasibility study and has already finalised feasibility report for six such links. According to the decision of the Water Resource Ministry of India the 10-year river linking project will be completed by 31 December. The major opposition in the Indian Parliament has already given support to the project. The Supreme Court of India has issued orders favouring implementation of the project .

Apparently this mega project of India may advance Indian interest but it has generated much concerns and anguishes in Bangladesh. Bangladesh holds that water diversion from the Brahmaputra and the Ganges (which provide 80 per cent of fresh water flow in the dry season), would threaten livelihoods of more than 100 million people and cause havoc to the entire ecosystem of downstream Bangladesh.

Bangladesh, as a deltaic region, have the mouth of several large international rivers that drain out the flow of 54 international rivers into the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh largely depends on the fresh water of these rivers that enter its territory from India for irrigation and water supply. Of the 1.72 million square kilometer areas of the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna basins, 8 per cent are within the territory of Bangladesh. Hence, any diversion of these rivers from and within India, Nepal, Bhutan and China will surely bring disaster to Bangladesh .
The diversion of water from the Brahmaputra, as has been proposed under the RLP, is likely to cause huge damage to the environment and ecology of Bangladesh. This Indian mega project will adversely affect millions of people in Bangladesh and not only obstruct the process of poverty alleviation but also contribute to the further expansion and intensification of poverty in the country. :
• The proposed diversion of water through river linking will block the flow of Bangladesh’s two major riverine networks, namely the Jamuna-Brahmaputra and the Ganges-Padma.
• Since Bangladesh depends in large part on the river Brahmaputra for supplying two-thirds of the country’s dry season water, withdrawal of water from the river will adversely effect legitimate interests and rights of at least 100 million people of Bangladesh.
• The proposed withdrawal of water flow by the upper riparian India will have serious harmful impact on the climate, ecology, geomorphology, bio-diversity, wetlands and navigational activities in the lower riparian Bangladesh.
• India’s search for irrigation water can dry out large areas in Bangladesh for much of the year and affect more than 80% of Bangladesh’s 20 million small farmers who grow rice and depend on water. Also the drying up of rivers will lead to intrusion of salinity into farming areas.
• Withdrawal of waters from the Brahmaputra by India would severely endanger the sweet water fishery in Bangladesh, the second largest in the world.
• Such diversion of water will decrease the flow of water to the Sunderbans, the world’s largest mangrove forest, a world heritage site shared both by India and Bangladesh and thus lead to its extinction.
• As learnt from the experience of Farakka Barrage built by India on the common river Ganges, great parts of Bangladesh will face desertification.
• As a result of increased siltation and reduced flow of water, incidents of natural disasters like flood, drought will intensify.
• A project that is feared to affect 140 million people of Bangladesh, directly or indirectly, may also lead to social and political instability in the region.
According to international law, if a river flows through more than one country it is considered to be an international river and the flow of an international river is not within the arbitrary power of one of the riparian states. So, India's unilateral decision to divert 30 common rivers is a clear violation of international law and also an injustice to Bangladesh in the field of water sharing.
Meanwhile, the government of Bangladesh has lodged protest against the Indian unilateral decision to divert water of 30 common rivers, in a normal diplomatic move. Bangladesh is not alone, Nepal also has joined the chorus of opposition. That's not all, even the Indian states of West Bengal, Assam and Bihar expressed their reservations over this mega project calling it as 'favors to western and southern India at the cost of the east.
In these circumstances, Bangladesh has several options to convince India to put off this scheme. Since, India has river treaties with her neighboring countries which prohibit Delhi from unilaterally altering river courses; Bangladesh should seek a regional or bilateral diplomatic solution first. Indian water resource minister assured that India would not do any thing unilaterally.

Water resources are so central to the lives of rural people in Bangladesh that anything that affects these resources has livelihood implications. These impacts can be immediate and direct, as with the land laws and the policy of leasing beels (water bodies). They can be indirect or periodic in effects: for example, the policy of building rural roads has had major consequences for the livelihoods of traditional boaters, whilst the embankments on which these roads have been built create major disruptions to hydrological systems (as witnessed in the 1998 floods, where they severely impeded the draining away of flood waters in many places). The intimate inter-weaving of water and livelihoods and the impacts of a wide range of policies mean that the traditional perception that water equals floods and water policies equal flood protection does not even begin to provide a meaningful policy framework for understanding water resources-livelihood relationships in Bangladesh. This has, to an extent, been realised in the recent policy and planning changes, but there is still only a limited understanding of the full nature of these relationships in policy and planning circles.
The steps that need to be taken for optimum utilization of water resources for effective and rapid alleviation of poverty are:
• Prepare a Water Resources Master Plan for the development of the water resources of the country having full regard to environmental compatibility and proper implementation of the plan.
• Determine national policies and strategies for the scientific utilization and conservation of the water resources.
• Decentralize the management of water resources and enhance the role of women.
• Accelerate the development of both public and private water delivery systems.
• Review and evaluate the impact of actions taken by any organization involved in the development, utilization and conservation of water resources.
• Improve the level of education, training and professional standards related to the utilization of water resources.
• Irrigation supply to areas short of groundwater in North West and South West of Bangladesh;
• Salinity control in South West and South Central areas in Bangladesh;
• Control river bank erosion
• Improved navigation on main rivers in and around Dhaka;
• Erosion control in vicinity of barrages;
• Drainage pumping in wet season.
• Collect and review information related to the utilization of the water resources and to arrange for its dissemination.
• Arrange and conduct national and international seminars, conferences and workshops related to water resources with prior approval of the government for international events.
• Resolve all water related problems with the respective countries.

3.f: Environment:

Environmental scenario:
The Government of Bangladesh has been laying special emphasis on protection and development of environment. Bangladesh is one of the signatory countries to 28 agreements, conventions and protocols on environment. Notable among these are:
• ?Convention on Climate Change.
• ?Agenda 21.
• ?Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage.
• ?Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
• ?Convention on Biological Diversity.
• ?Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.
• ?Convention to Combat Desertification.
• ?Marine Pollution Convention (MARPOL).
• ?Global Tiger Forum.

A report titled ‘The State of the Environment: Bangladesh 2001’, published by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has identified five nationally important environmental issues. These are: land degradation, water pollution and scarcity, air pollution, biodiversity and natural disaster. In a report of United Nations University predict that in the coming 5years 50 million people will be displaced around the world due to environmental disaster. Among them 22.60 million will be from Bangladesh alone . This will further increase and intensify poverty in the country and seriously affect its efforts for development. Set out below is a resume of the key environmental issues.



3.f.1:Acceptable level of forest cover
Deforestation is a major cause that damages environment in different ways. The causes of deforestation are many. It is caused by farmers engaged in expanding agricultural production, by logging companies and big fuel wood collectors. It is revealed that fuel-wood and charcoal supplies a major portion of the energy needs of the vast majority of the Bangladeshi people who are poor.
Forests are not just a source of fuel-wood and timber. They also perform a wide range of social and ecological functions. It provides livelihood and cultural integrity to forest dwellers and a habitat for plants and animals. It protects and enriches soils, provides natural regulation of the hydrological cycles affect local and regional climate through evaporation, influences watershed flows of surface and ground water and helps stabilize the global climate by absorbing carbon as they grow.
In spite of these contributing functions of forest the pace of deforestation continues to be alarming. In 1960, the total forest area of Bangladesh was about 20% of the total landscape. Now, this has come down to 10%. While the desirable proportion of forestry in total land area of a country for ecological stability is 25%, the figure continues to decline every year. About 50 per cent of the destruction of forests has taken place during the last 20 years, affecting topsoil and causing land erosion. Social forestry and backyard plantations have not yet been able to compensate for such deforestation. So government should accelerate social forestry and take measures to stop deforestation.
3.f.2:Desirable level of water quality and quantity
The availability and the quality of surface and ground water highly influence the environment, economic growth and development of Bangladesh. Spatial and seasonal availability of surface and ground water is largely dependent on the monsoon and physiography of the country. In terms of quality, the surface water of the country is unprotected from untreated industrial effluents and municipal waste water, runoff pollution from chemical fertilizers and pesticides and oil and lube spillage in the coastal area from the operation of sea and river ports and ship wreckage. Water quality also depends on effluent types and discharge quality from different type of industries, the type of agrochemicals used in agriculture and seasonal water flow and dilution by the river system. The arsenic concentration in the ground water is a major problem in Bangladesh now. High levels of arsenic if embedded for a long time (from 5 to 15 years) cause serious human health problems including skin ailments, damage to internal organs, skin and lung cancers and eventual death. The recent major studies carried out on arsenic reveal that among 30,000 tube wells studied, 2,000 exceeded the national standard of 0.05 mg/l for drinking purposes (the WHO guideline is 0.01 mg/l). The problem is acute in tube wells extracting groundwater from 10 m to 100 m depth in the Southeast, South Central (the northern part only), and Southwest regions and it exists to a lesser extent in the Northeast region, and the very Southern fringe of the North Central and Northwest region along the river Ganges. The most seriously affected districts are in and around Chandpur.
It has been estimated that more than 20 million people drink water containing more arsenic than the national standard for arsenic levels (WARPO, 2000).

3.f.2.1:Flood:
Due to the peculiar topography of the country, extensive flooding and inundation occur every year in Bangladesh by bank overflow from the enormous volumes of water which pass through the rivers. In a normal year, more than 18% of the country or over 26,000sq .km (10,000 sq.miles) is flooded but during the abnormally high floods, much more surface areas are flooded. The extent of flooding was over 36% of the land in 1954 and 1974,more than 40 in percent 1987, and up to 62 percent in 1988 . The flood in 1998 was even more extensive than the 1988 flood in coverage and it inundated 100,000sq. km. or 68 present of the surface according to the Bureau of Disaster Management(1998) and 84,000 sq. kms. according to SPARSO. This flood was also one of the longest in terms of duration, up to 2-3 months in most areas.
The damages caused by the annual floods and particularly by the devastating abnormal ones are enormous. The 1987 flood completely or partially damaged 2.06 million houses which was 16.67 percent of the national housing stock. The 1988 flood had displaced and affected an estimated 45 million people and destroyed or partially damaged 12.3 million houses of which 5.4 million were completely destroyed and 7.4 million were partially damaged . The losses of standing crops, livestock and damage to rural and urban infrastructure had also been colossal. The 1998 flood affected 30.92 million people in 52 out of the 64 districts . An estimated 916,660 houses were totally damaged with another 1300,000 houses damaged partially .
The total damage cost in all sectors in the country estimated by UNDP is 200 million dollars or 100 billion taka (or 10,000 crore taka) .
Table: Coverage of inundation and Damage Cause by Major Floods, 1954-1998
Year Flooded area
(sq. km.) Percentage of total area Cost of damage (approximately crore taka) Population affected (approximately million persons) Deaths (number of persons)
1954 36920 25 120 - 112
1955 50700 34 129 - 129
1956 35620 24 90 - -
1962 37440 25 56 - 117
1963 43180 29 58 - -
1968 37300 25 116 - 126
1970 42640 28 110 30 87
1974 52720 35 2849 20 1987
1987 57491 38 3500 30 1657
1988 77700 52 10000 47 2379
1998 84000 56 10000 (approx.)30 1000
Source: B.W.D.B 1987 quoted by Miah , 1988(for 1954-1987) Siddique 98 and Bureau of Disaster Management(1998).
3.f.2.2:Green House Effect:
The greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere are increasing. The consequences will be progressive global warming and climate change. There is apprehension that Bangladesh in one of the most vulnerable countries in the world to climate changes and the resultant rise of sea level. The most serious consequences of climate change for Bangladesh will be a rise in sea level along the Bay of Bengal coasts, causing inundating of 10 to 20 percent of the coastal land including the Sundarbans, as well as saline intrusion in the rivers.
UNCED warned that, due to global warming the sea level would rise 1 meter by the year 2035. If the sea level rises 1 meter than 17% of Bangladesh will be inundated. By the year 2050 the sea level may rise to 2 meters, then 40% of the country will be inundated. The adverse impact of this will be disastrous for the entire land.

Table: Possible affect of 1 meter sea level rising on area and people

District Affected area
( percentage) Affected area
(square km.) Affected people
Barisal 90 6,660 4,261,000
Phatuakhali 100 4,095 1,598,000
Khulna 80 9,734 289,000
Noakhali 50 2,730 1,448,000
Comilla 15 990 114,700
Faridpur 15 1,032 751,000
Total 24,150 11,062,700

Table: Possible affect of 1 meter sea level rising on area and people

Crops (paddy) Affected area(acare) Percentage
Amon 3,160,000 21
Aous 99,000 12
Boro 252,000 8

3.f.2.3:Scarcity of Water
Generally, water scarcity is a dry season phenomenon. During this season the availability of water becomes less than the demand or the quality of the water restricts its use. As a lower riparian country, Bangladesh has 57 trans-boundary rivers, of which 54 are shared with India and 3 with Myanmar. A significant amount of dry season stream flow is withdrawn and diverted upstream by neighbouring countries for irrigation and other purposes. The Farakka barrage on the river Ganges is a notable example. Desertification prevails in some north-western areas of Bangladesh on account of withdrawal and diversion of upstream water in the dry season.
Other important causes of water scarcity in Bangladesh are:
• ?Scanty, irregular and erratic rainfall in the dry season;
• ?Gradual siltation in the riverbed and flood plain and declining river water level;
• ?Withdrawal of wetland water;
• ?Dry season irrigation, and
• ?Non-availability of safe water during flood and inundation.
Notwithstanding the large number of rules and regulations to protect water from industrial effluents and other pollution and the policies for protecting the environment through dry season augmentation of water, concerns for the future still prevail. These concerns are related to proper implementation of national policies, the lack of institutional capability and awareness to properly address the policy objectives and goals. The emerging issue of climate change and its adverse impacts on water resources need proper consideration for planning. Earlier analysis of climate change scenarios showed that water scarcity in the dry season would be aggravated and low water flow in the river system would allow saline water intrusion to progress further inland. Climate change induced adverse impacts on agriculture will put further stress on the country in attaining food sufficiency and reducing poverty of the masses.

3.f.3:Acceptable level of soil quality

The quality of soil has deteriorated due to improper use of agrochemicals, unplanned land use, encroachment on forest areas for agriculture and settlements, ineffective enforcement of existing laws and guidelines and improper disposal of hazardous industrial wastes. In addition, sprawling urban areas and infrastructure development have diminished the availability of land. Natural disasters such as cyclones and floods cause erosion of soil together with the degradation of soil quality. Unplanned land use and intrusion of saline water are causing degradation of soil in the coastal area. A study of Water Resource Planning Organisation (WARPO) on ‘Morphological Dynamics of the Brahmaputra- Jamuna River’, using remote sensing images showed during the period between 1973- 1996, a total of 73,522 hectares of land eroded while only 10,628 hectares of land have been reclaimed.
Aside from its social and environmental impact, land degradation has its serious economic implications as well. An assessment has been carried out by Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC) on production loss of crops and additional agricultural input necessary to maintain soil nutrients. The study reveals that the total economic cost of land degradation exceeds US $ 0.2 billion per year.
Real and effective ways to minimize land degradation problems should be based on multi-sectored, multi-layered, yet integrated approaches. The most important policy measure required for addressing land degradation is an integrated land use policy with respect to agriculture, industry and environment. This step can go a long way in ensuring effective poverty alleviation.

3.f.4: Acceptable level of air quality

Air pollution is a manmade environmental disaster that is taking place all over the world. In Bangladesh as in other parts of the world, air pollution has recently been gaining priority among environmental issues. Exposure to air pollution is the main environmental threat to human health in towns and cities. There are two major sources of air pollution in Bangladesh, vehicular emissions and industrial emissions, which are mainly concentrated in the cities. There are also numerous brick-making kilns working in dry season all over Bangladesh which is another source of air pollution. Almost all of these kilns use coal and wood as their source of energy, resulting in the emissions of oxides of sulfur and volatile organic compounds.
Urban air quality monitoring data revealed that the concentration of suspended particulate matter in Dhaka and Chittagong exceeds the threshold limit set by the Department of Environment. A study on the values for average suspended air particulate mass in rural and urban areas of Bangladesh and average elemental carbon in the fine fraction of airborne particulate matter (APM) in urban areas, showed that the concentration of suspended particles in ambient air is many times higher than normal. It also revealed that the PM 2.5 masses and chemical concentrations are lower in most cases compared to the corresponding PM 2.5 – PM 10 values. The ratio of PM 2.5 to PM 10, and the amount of black carbon in the APM are reduced during the high rainfall (HRE) period in both rural and urban sites by about 25 percent and 20 percent , respectively. In the urban areas, it was found that concentration of SO2 also exceed the threshold limit quite often in Dhaka .
An emerging issue of great concern in the cities and towns is the high concentration of lead in the air from vehicular exhausts. The Department of Environment and other concerned agencies and organisations have identified the two-stroke engines used in vehicles as major polluters. Among the polluting vehicles, the two-stroke auto-rickshaws have been identified as the worst polluters. The two-stroke petrol engines are less fuel-efficient and emit about 30-100 times more unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide than four-stroke engines. That’s why government banned it in the Dhaka city. It should be banned in the whole country.
The country has a reasonable good number of laws and regulations to address air pollution viz. the Brick Burning (Control) Amendment Act, 1992; Bangladesh Environmental Conservation Act, 1995; Environment Conservation Rules, 1997; Environment Court Law, 2000 etc. The ultimate success of any law is the extent to which it translates into action.
3.f.5:Conservation of bio-diversity

Biological resources and their diversity form the basis of both the ecology and economy of Bangladesh. The country's agriculture, fisheries and livestock, along with a number of other sectors are heavily dependent, directly or indirectly on the biological resources.
Bangladesh possesses good terrestrial and aquatic environment that provide habitat for a large number of plants and animals. The delta is rich in fish and aquatic resources and other biodiversity. Rivers and other inland water bodies provide habitats for 266 indigenous fish species(belonging to 55 families) and 150 species of birds. The inland water bodies are also the habitat of 56 species of prawns. More than 20 species of freshwater mollusks have been identified.
In addition the IUCN Bangladesh Red Data Book (2000) has described 22 amphibians, 126 reptiles, 628 birds in total(388 resident and 240 migratory) 110 inland mammals, as well as 3 species of marine mammals in Bangladesh. There are numerous invertebrates in the country that are yet to be identified. Bangladesh supports approximately 5000 species of angiosperms, among which 300 species are being cultivated. Currently the list of medicinal plants are being revised by the Bangladesh National Herbarium and the number is expected to exceed 500 species. There are 224 species of timber yielding plants and 130 fiber plants found among the flora of Bangladesh.
The Sundarbans support a very rich and diverse fish fauna of 400 species, over 270 species of birds and over 300 species of plants. It comprises the largest remaining tract of habitat for the rare Royal Bengal Tiger .

The depletion of biodiversity is the result of various kinds of human development interventions that impinge on it through destruction and degradation of land, forest and aquatic habitats. These activities encompass the sectors of agriculture, forestry, fisheries, urbanisation, industry, transport, tourism, energy, chemicals and minerals etc. In the fisheries sector, shrimp cultivation has become a major concern from the past decade. It has caused serious environmental damage that has harmed fish and other aquatic biodiversity significantly. The total area under shrimp cultivation is estimated to be 145 thousand hectares, which is about 1 per cent of total land area of Bangladesh. About 80 per cent of the total shrimp cultivating area is located in Khulna, Satkhira, Bagerhat, Barisal, Patuakhali, Jessore and Noakhali districts and cultivation of food and cash crops has totally or partially been eliminated in these areas. If agricultural production is to be carried out in these districts using the same level of inputs and similar methods of management, the land-output ratio will not be the same as before the switch to shrimp culture activity. The difference between the outputs during the two periods is the loss in production.
A moderate degree of land degradation, which results in a production loss of 45 per cent, is estimated to cause a loss of 146,160 Mt. of rice in physical terms and Tk 1237.6 million in monetary terms. This is 0.35 per cent of the agricultural GDP and 0.11 per cent of the total GDP of the country in 1994 .
Due to seepage effects of increased salinization of the soils, the rice yield per acre of the lands adjacent to shrimp farms has been declining significantly. Whereas the per acre yield of Aman rice production in these lands was in the neighborhood of 937.5 kg to 1125.0 kg before the start of shrimp cultivation, it has dropped to 112.5 kg to 150.0 kg only in some cases.
As CPD states “the coastal shrimp farming areas in the south have suffered environmental degradation; increased salinity of soil, canals and the ponds within the polders; reduction in grazing land and a consequent reduction of livestock; destruction of mangrove forests; adverse affects on the potential crop-mix, cropping intensity, crop calendar and the overall cropping pattern in the areas concerned; and a reduction in soil quality. In addition, the shrimp cultivating areas experienced an increase in unemployment and aggravation of social and economic conflicts and tensions .”
According to the Red List of IUCN, there are 54 species of inland fishes, 8 amphibians, 58 reptiles, 41 resident birds and 40 mammals, which are threatened throughout the country. Among the marine and migratory species of animals 4 fishes, 5 reptiles, 6 birds and 3 mammals are threatened. The Red Data book on plants, which is still under preparation at Bangladesh National Herbarium, already lists 96 seed-bearing plant species that are threatened .
Bangladesh signed the convention on bio-diversity at Rio in 1992 and ratified it in 1994..It declared six areas ( Coxes Bazar, Tecknaf sea beach, Cent Martin island, Sonadia island, Hakaluki Haor (wetland), Tanguar Haor (wetland) and Marjat Baor (wetland) as ‘Ecologically Critical Areas’ and took steps for their preservation. . A focus on biodiversity has been emphasized in the Forest and Environment Policy. However, a separate policy on biodiversity is yet to be formulated and until then various departments of the government are responsible for conservation of biodiversity.
There is a great potential in Bangladesh for biodiversity based sustainable development. In spite of the threatened wild fauna and flora, there are nearly 10,000 species of plants, animals and microbial organisms- a good percentage of which are found in superabundance. A wise and sustainable yield and harvest methodology, and management plan need to be formulated and applied at the field level. So that these biological resources are not over-exploited, and the economy of the country prospers with favourable and positive impact on poverty alleviation.

3.g:Governance:

Discussions of governance often generate more rhetorical heat than empirical light. Governance is examined as “the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country’s eco and social resources for development.” (World Bank 1992) During recent years there has been a surge of interest in the consequence of governance. Kaufman (2004) examined the primary data for 150 countries and assessed the variability of the six sets of governance indicators: voice and accountability, political stability and violence, governmental effectiveness, rule of law, regulatory mechanism, graft and corruption . The findings of the Kaufman’s study (2000) have shown that one standard deviation increase in any of the governance indicators causes between a two and a half percent increase in per capita incomes and four fold decrease in infant morality and to a 15 to 25 percent increase in literacy. Improved governance also leads to significant increases in adult literacy, with a one-standard deviation increase in governance leading to between a 15 and 25 percentage point improvement in literacy in the full sample of countries .
In Bangladesh, a number of issues of governance can be put forward that keep a large portion of population below the poverty line.

3.g.1: Reduce social and institutional vulnerabilities of the poor, women and children
The poor, women and children in particular, face a number of social and institutional barriers and insecurities in the pursuit of their livelihoods and social life. Removing such barriers and insecurities should be a priority. Targets will include eradication of social ills such as dowry, female foeticide, trafficking of women and children, bonded labour, child marriage, hazardous child labour, disadvantages suffered by marginalized and socially excluded people, etc.
Crimes of violence against women i.e. rape, acid attacks, beating, murder, abduction and trafficking have increased greatly in the last few years. Beating and other forms of oppression sometimes lead to death of women as a result of dowry disputes, which is illegal but is still practiced widely in the rural areas.
Despite the continuing anti-dowry campaign on the part of Human Rights Organizations and other NGOs, relevant GOs, different segment of the society, electronic and print media, dowry-disputes in 2003 alone claimed 261 lives (Odhikar,2004) . Women belonging to the low-income groups of the society are particularly hard hit by dowry disputes.
Acid violence has also been on the increase at an alarming rate. Acid throwing incidents are motivated by disputes over conjugal, financial or land related matters.
From 1991 to 1999, the total number of trafficked women and children were 47,925. Of course, this is an understatement of the actual number due to the illegal nature of trafficking .
Disabled people have received attention only in the recent past. Even though Bangladesh has signed the Proclamation on the Full Participation and Equity of People with Disabilities in the Asia-Pacific Region in 1993, very few human rights organizations work in this field. And in the case of mentally sick, only a handful work for them.
Since the signing of the Child Rights Convention in 1990, the Bangladesh government and some NGOs are working towards the development of human rights for children. It may be noted that a ‘ National Plan of Action for Children (1997-2001) had been launched in 1999 . The key aim of this was to ensure better quality for children. However, the picture is still very grim. Bangladeshi children are often victims of wide ranging forms of inhuman abuse and cruelty. These abuses can be physical, mental and sexual. 477 children were murdered in the year 2003 alone (Odhikar, 2004) .
Bangladesh is a signatory of CEDAW. But it is yet to properly implement the convention. Steps should be taken immediately for proper law enforcement, reviewing the existing laws, awareness building, regional cooperation to prevent trafficking, creation of employment facilities, access to justice, empowerment of women, proper treatment facilities for the victims etc.

3.g.2: Political stability:
Democracy as an institution has been resurrected in Bangladesh and still remains uncertain. Over the last three decades since her independence Bangladesh has witnessed several political turmoil including the assassination of two presidents, two army coups and two major political movements that caused the down fall of various political regimes. As a matter of fact the Bangladeshi polity during the last thirty years oscillated between autocracy and democratic rule .
Both 1996 and 2001 elections were preceded by a long Opposition boycott of Parliament. The Opposition was engaged in prolonged violent street agitation, causing considerable damage to the country’s economy and its political system. Political culture, as shaped in recent times in Bangladesh is characterized by confrontation and intolerance . One observer notes, “…given the recent political history of Bangladesh, the main question is …how the political parties—the winners and the non-winners—will behave with one another. Will they cooperate and sit inside the parliament and give the nation a stable democracy? Or will they cry foul, claim that the voting was rigged, point accusing fingers at one another and refuse to accept the verdict of the people, bringing us all back to square one?
Political parties are organisationally weak and poor agents of democratic transformation . Party programmes or ideologies seldom mobilise voters during elections. All major parties bank on populist approach of rhetoric, symbolism and sentiments as the major instruments for mobilising voters . A favourite weapon to harass a sitting government is calling a Hartal, a general strike which paralyses most economic activities, especially transport, sometimes for days. The main opposition party with objective of gearing up antigovernment movement, enforced 44 Hartals in 2004 alone. There were 827 days of Hartals during 1991 and 2002 and 147 days during the period of 2002-2004. The estimated figure shows that the average costs of Hartals to the economy during 1990s is 3 to 4 percent of GDP.
The parliament is populated by MPs many of whom have allegedly made financial ‘investment’ in their nomination by their party and in their subsequent election. A seat in parliament was reported to cost up to US$ 1million in Bangladesh . Indeed, it appears that the wealth of candidates is a more important factor determining electoral nomination and success than local credibility and the candidates’ ability and willingness to represent the interests of constituents. Parliamentary discussions have not only lost in quality of contents and essence but also featured by filthy language, unparliamentary statements and intemperate exchanges. Prolonged and periodic walkouts by opposition even on unnecessary grounds characterize the very vulnerability and low level of credibility of transactions of parliamentary sessions. Bangladesh Awami League(AL), the major opposition party refrained from joining the House. During the present parliament (8th Parliament) out of a total 226 workdays of the House, the major opposition party AL has so far participated only in 76 workdays. .
Every minute during a parliamentary session costs Taka 15,000 US$ 241.00. In the 8th parliament from the session 11th to 14th 5,01,15,000 Taka or US$ 0.82 million( US$ 1= 62 taka)was lost due to the non availability of quorum in the parliament . If the sessions of the parliament are not conducted appropriately and participated fully, these can not play their expected role in politico-economic development of the country. The resources lost in the process constitute a considerable drainage on the scare resources of the poverty-stricken land.


Table: Loss of money due to non-availability of quorum

11th session 12th session 13th session 14th session Total
2,77,65,000 1,73,25,000 13,95,000 36,30,000 5,01,15,000

(Source: Transparency International Bangladesh, Parliament watch, 2005,p-37)
Although the election manifestos of various parties made general statements concerning poor and poverty, ironically pro-poor issues did not receive due attention in the parliamentary discussions and debates. There were hardly any deliberations on making demand or suggesting changes in the policy or process or proposing new law/rules to address poverty issues. A study further reveals that there is a conceptual confusion among MPs in understanding and or operationalizing pro-poor issues .
If we cannot bring political stability in our country, our achievement on different social indicators may be negated. Thus there is an urgent necessity for political reforms in the country.
3.g.3:Combating corruption to prevent the leakage resources
Like many other developing nations Bangladesh also suffers from widespread corruption at political, administrative and business sectors. A section of politicians and public administrators find greater scope for corruption in expanded public service.

Legislature, judiciary and executive branch are the three principle branches of the government. In Bangladesh the capability and competence of these branches have eroded over the years. Corruption has made inroads in each of these branches. .
A recent study shows that, in the “municipalities”, 35 percent had to bribe to build houses, 47 percent had to bribe officials to take certificates or to obtain trade licenses, or even to receive relief in time of disasters 29 percent people gave bribe some elected representatives .
Corruption allegedly is widely practiced in the lower judiciary. Many of the officials are reportedly recruited on the basis of political considerations. The detail scenarios of the level of corruption of various departments are given in the following figure:



(Source: The Daily Prothom-Alo, 29th October,2004)

TIB shows for the cause of corruption Bangladesh lost 2.25 billion taka from July- December in the year 2003. The sector wise distribution of the loss are given bellow:



(Source: The Daily Star, 1st September, 2004.)
Though Bangladesh has figured prominently in the corruption ranking of the Transparency International (TI) in the recent years the vast majority of the people are honest. Following preventive measures may help arrest corruption:

• Appointment of effective Ombudsman
• Citizens should be given options for receiving any public services from alternative places and sources to cut down on monopoly power.
• Strengthen the independent Anti-Corruption Commission so that it can be effective.
• Anti-corruption laws may be consolidated with new provisions, which may include punishing the corrupt persons as well as those who instigate/help corruption.
• In order to reduce the scope of malpractice/corruption, the government should break up all utility monopolies and create competing private companies.
• Create interactive relation with the civil society and establish the right to register complaint, get a quick reply after inquiry and remedies for deviant behavior of civil servants.
• Insist on probity and accountability through transparent decision-making.
• Allow free access to information to concerned citizens and the press.
• Institute citizens’ audit in all service delivery organizations.

3.g.4:Ensure access to affordable justice
A lack of safety and security directly affects the welfare of poor people. It can cause injury and death, reduce family income and generate a climate of fear. . A backlog of cases and corruption further also continue (cause) to plague the judicial system, thus reducing the effectiveness of delivery of justice to ordinary citizens.

The expeditious and affordable justice system to the poor and vulnerable section of the community is one of the criteria of a fair and just society. Plato defines justice as what is due to every one and it should not be denied. According to him, justice is the mother of all virtues.

If justice is expensive and delayed, justice is eventually denied. The courts are unable to dispose of their cases within a reasonable time, mainly because of constraint resources. While addressing a workshop titled “ Alternative Dispute Resolution (ARD): In Quest of a New Dimension in Civil Justice Delivery System in Bangladesh” on 31 October 2002, the Law, Justice and Parliamentary Affairs Minster Barrister Moudud Ahmed informed that nearly one million cases were pending with different courts in the country. Of the 968,305 pending cases are now pending cases, 127,244 were with the High Court Division and 4,946 with the Appellate Division of the Supreme court .

Experts believe that certain measures and remedies are necessary to improve upon the present justice system to meet the needs of the poor. One of the ideas recently floated is the efficacy of the Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) system. In Bangladesh, there are enough skilled persons who have intensively worked on ADR system. Inexpensive and speedy justice system needs to be introduced in rural areas so that poor can avail themselves of proper justice under laws of the country .
About forty thousand cases involving about 100.00 billion Taka were pending in the Debt Settlement Courts. Under the Debt Settlement Court Act, 2003, which provided for ADR, about 3.00 billion Taka have been recovered since May 2003 .
Poor people especially rural are not often aware of their legal rights. Dissemination of information about legal rights constitutes another important means of securing justice for all.
3.g.5:Ensure effective participation of poor and of women in anti-poverty policies and programs
Ensuring ‘Voice of the Poor’ at all stages of anti-poverty policies and programmes – implementation, monitoring, planning, and policy formulation- will be critical to building the ownership of the poor over the poverty reduction process. Practice of participatory management in every government institution can play a pivotal role in strengthening poverty reduction process. Development planners recognize that the upliftment of the poor and backward masses is a pre-condition for the overall development of a country. Various development initiatives’ successes are limited, on account of adequate participation by the stakeholders.
The people of Bangladesh continue to express high levels of enthusiasm in the political process. This has been borne out by experience in politics since the resumption of parliamentary cabinet democracy in 1991. Various parliamentary and local bodies’ elections during the 1990s together have seen an average turnout of over 70 percent of registered voters. The parliamentary elections in 1996 and 2001 were marked by a high voter turnout of over 74 percent . Voter turnouts in local elections at the lowest union parishad level elections also in consistently high. Clearly, the electorate in Bangladesh is keenly exercising its democratic franchise.
Women’s participation in local councils received a huge boost with the provision for reserved seats for women in union parishads (councils). This provision came into force in the 1997 elections in which 12723 women were elected to the reserved seats out of 43969 who competed. Women are also making inroads into the more competitive general and chairman positions too as can be seen from the Table below:
Table: Women’s position in Union Parishad Elections
Year Chairman General member
Competitors Winners Competitors Winners
1997 102 20 456 110
2003 207 22 564 79
( Source: PPRC, Working Paper 1: How can the human rights and governance agenda be best served?, p-21)
Nevertheless, the political representation of the poor through the electoral process in today’s Bangladesh remains set in a patron-client framework which tend to militate against any independent political assertion by the poor. This is certainly true for the national level though less true for the local level. The patron-client orientation of the electoral process is additionally compounded by implicit threats an electoral violence that tend to be inhibiting factors on the political assertion of the poor. The entire process strongly militates against any independent political representation of the poor, and hence, any independent leverage over the setting of policy or programme priorities of the national government. Though some positive opportunities for better political representation are emerging in the local government arena, its significance as to the construction of priorities remain limited given the severe weakness of local governments within the structure of government. In the absence of substantive jurisdictional and representational powers, local government offices have not been able to fulfill their promise. They have virtually continued to be subservient offices of district administration. Thus, even when people have had the chance to exercise their right of vote for local government, few substantive democratic gains have followed because of the jurisdictional and representational limitations of such offices.
There is no denying the fact that the popular pressure and participation from the grassroots organizations are necessary prerequisites for political change and economic progress. Bureaucratic centralism and control of the local government, weakens the educative effects of political participation. The devolutionary system of decentralization can buttress/prop up to make bureaucrats accountable in all levels of administration. The system of participative management and decentralization of policy making authority in the field level and a bottom-up planning machinery can also help in establishing an accountable, efficient and a transparent system of public administration. That is why; the devolution type of local government system needs to be responsive to stakeholders, interests and needs, which requires a participatory approach not only in service delivery but also in planning and decision-making.















Figure: People’s participation in various levels

In this regard, the tasks of local governments are to identify and support the development of local partnerships, for example, with CBOs, NGOs and private sector, and to ensure commitment to a partnership/participation enabling strategy. To develop participation it is essential to support grassroots organizations and intermediary organizations such as professional associations, consumer groups and trade unions; to involve all project stakeholders in programme design and implementation and to ensure better access of marginalized groups to the formal economic and legal system that requires a change in political and bureaucratic attitudes. The success of participatory development cannot be harvested overnight rather it is an issue of long term exercise- which requires better economic policies and more investment in human capital, infrastructure, and institution-building, along with better governance. Sometimes the ruling party tries to suppress the efforts of participatory development in fear of losing the base of its own power. Genuine participation of the people in administration and implementation of the government programmes can also help in smooth functioning of democracy which otherwise can make ground for holding bureaucracy accountable at the grass-roots.

As with a glass that is simultaneously half full and half empty, Bangladesh has recently made significant, progress in reducing poverty but still faces the reality that roughly half its citizens, live in deprivation . Bangladesh still does had many inherent strengths which can be used as effective instruments for equitable socio-economic develop of the country..

4.Avenues of regional co-operation
Translating the priorities and targets outlined above is primarily a matter for national action. However, there is scope for a regional window of initiatives which are readily implementable and have clear potential to speed up the process of poverty alleviation. The Independent South Asian Commission On Poverty Alleviation (ISACPA) recommends the following initiatives to be undertaken at the SAARC-level:

4.a:A South Asian Data-Base on Poverty Alleviation Best Practices and Regional Cooperation Program on Dissemination:
South Asia boasts of a number of ‘best practice’ initiatives in the field of poverty alleviation some of which have earned wide recognition of appreciation. The region, however, lacks a comprehensive and credible data-base on such ‘best practices’ and in particular on specific features of these ‘best practices’.
The following steps are envisaged in operationalizing this initiative:
1) Inventorizing best practices.
• Literature review.
• Development of a generic format for description of best practices.
• Field work for identification and description of best practices.
• Evaluation and collation of successful models.
2) A regional capacity building program for dissemination of best practices.
• Preparation of training materials.
• Undertaking of regional and sub-regional capacity building activities.
• Setting up a website and e-group.
3) Country based approaches for replication .

4.b:Promotion of rural technology in SAARC:
Development of rural industries and creation of employment opportunities in non-farm sector holds the key to elimination of poverty in South Asia. Though the share of agriculture in GDP in most South Asian economies has declined significantly, a commensurate decline in the workforce dependent on agriculture for livelihoods has not occurred. Development of rural industries has been slow and sporadic. These family-owned industries of small size and low technological base lack access to credit and marketing facilities. In spite of shortcomings, they employ a significant proportion of the work force engaged in manufacturing activities. The rural industries and small and medium enterprises in rural areas face threats from many quarters. They also face major threats from products produced by large domestic enterprises at lower costs and often better quality. Revival of rural industries and their growth critically depends on infusion of fresh technology, capital and other inputs.
Technological support to rural industries would need to encompass all aspects of the production process. These will need to cover product design, production process, product packaging and marketing. In addition, creation of a policy environment, which enhances access of rural enterprises to material inputs, financial assistance and infrastructure critical to their survival, has to be ensured.
The following steps are envisaged in operationalizing this initiative :

Step 1: national initiatives on rural technologies
At the national level, the major steps required for technology in rural areas would be:
• Identification of opportunities based on which viable and sustainable enterprises could be set up, including identification of industries and clusters which could be promoted in specific areas;
• Identification and facilitation of transfer of appropriate technologies to existing units;
• Formulation of a package of development interventions that should include identification, training of potential entrepreneurs in rural areas, provision of financial, technical and marketing linkages;
• Creation of a policy environment that is conducive to growth of small enterprises through infrastructure development of rural areas, fiscal and other incentives.

Step 2: Constitution of advisory group for rural technology
Once national level coordination is accomplished and nodal agencies identified in each country, an advisory group of these institutions may be constituted. This group would scan existing technologies that are being used by the rural enterprises. Such scanning is an important first step not only for stock-taking but also for planning to plan for future-technology development appropriate to the SAARC region.

Step 3: constitution of a sub-group to identify niche products:
There are many products manufactured in rural and cottage industries in SARRC that have a niche market in the world. Brassware, pottery , tie and dye silk products are some example. Value addition to these products could involve greater design inputs. Bamboo products benefit a great deal from design interventions. Jute and other agro-based products could benefit from introduction of designs and packaging which cater to market requirements. The advisory group could constitute a sub-group on product identification for intensive intervention. The sub-group should identify such products for each country and delegate responsibility for development of suitable technology to identified institutions.

Step 4: Use of information technology to promote rural technologies:
Development of technology involves questions of intellectual property rights and royalty payments in many cases. However, the technologies that are not of a proprietary rights and could easily be put in the public domain need to be propagated in the SAARC region by making available information on these technologies along with necessary details to access them on a website. The website could be created and maintained under the supervision of the advisory group.

4.c:Review of laws and policies which impact on the livelihood of the poor:
Poverty alleviation and provision of opportunities that enhance well being of the poor, power of the people in decision-making, mainstreaming of the informal economy and sustainable development form part of the strategic vision of SAARC. To achieve this vision, it is imperative that national policies, laws and administrative rules and procedures promote equity and social inclusion. It may be prudent to confine the scope of the analysis of anti-poor laws and polices on a few selected issues which affect a large proportion of poor. These are listed below for rural and urban poor separately :

Rural
• Land tenure laws
• Laws relating to tribal communities
Urban
• Home-based workers
• Service providers
• Street hawkers and (cycle)rickshaw pullers
• Housing for the urban poor.
The following steps are envisaged towards operationalizing the above initiative:
Step 1: Constitution of thematic working groups
Working groups on the topics identified above may be set up. The composition of the working groups would differ depending on the theme.
Step 2: Identification of key polices on selected themes
Each working group will collect and collate policies followed in individual countries on the topic under discussion.
Step 3: Regional workshops on identified themes.




4.d:Cooperation and experience sharing on poverty relevant areas:

It is necessary to extend the ambit of cooperation in the SAARC region on the issues, which are of pan-SAARC nature and could enhance the region’s capabilities and bargaining position in international fora. The issues that are amenable to treatment on a regional scale are many. Some of these are already a part of the SAARC mandate. Elimination of poverty or creation of a South Asian Free Trade Area have received considerable attention. Cooperation in the field of energy, transport and tele-communication, fundamental to rapid economic growth, have been attempted in the past at bilateral levels. There are, however, issues that need to be brought into focused discussion. It may also be easier to elicit cooperation of all SAARC members as these issues are largely apolitical and yet are central to the well being of the poor and their quest for decent standards of living. The issues on which greater cooperation will yield large dividends are :
- Agriculture research and extension
- Intellectual property rights in agriculture and protection of bio-diversity
- Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) protected life saving drugs produced by MNC’s
- Natural calamities and disaster mitigation strategies
- Tourism
- Competition policy
- Immunization
- Protection from various diseases

4.d.1:Agriculture research and extension
Agriculture is still the largest employer of the workforce in South Asia. Food grains continue to be the staple diet of the people and providers of not only energy but also proteins. The productivity of agriculture in agro-climatic zones of similar nature in different countries vary considerably. A greater cooperation among SAARC members in agricultural research and extension could considerably enhance agricultural productivity and food security of the region. Collaboration between National Agricultural systems could also avoid duplication of research efforts and release resources for further research.

4.d.2:Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) in agriculture and protection of bio-diversity
IPRs in agriculture are part of the WTO regime. Regional cooperation in evolving a common position on IPRs in agriculture and protection of bio-diversity is of paramount importance as South Asia is one the hot spots of bio-diversity. Protection of this heritage is closely linked to our food security as well.

4.d.3:Alternative medicine
South Asia has a long tradition of Ayurvedic, Unani and other systems of medicines for health care. These cut across national boundaries and a common position on research, support, development of medicines and extension efforts could be evolved to provide health care at affordable prices to the poor.

4.d.4:Natural calamities and disaster and mitigation
South Asia is the most disaster prone area of the world. The World Disaster Report 2001 identified Bangladesh as the most flood prone countries in the world, followed by India. These two countries accounted for a major proportion of global loss of life due to natural disasters. Flash floods, droughts and earthquakes have been recurring in South Asia with increasing frequency. An institutional response at the regional level is
required for early detection, warning and for taking up programmes that provide not only immediate relief but also long term rehabilitation and reconstruction. This is especially important in view of the fact that natural disasters affect the poor disproportionately. As there are resource constraints in the SAARC countries to face natural disasters like tsunami or earthquake, we can make arrangements to use the resources from other countries.

4.d.5:Tourism
South Asia has a rich cultural heritage. It has a great tourism potential and could be easily marketed as a composite tourist destination. The sector also has high employment generation potential.

4.d.6:Competition policy
SAARC countries have followed a path of integration with the global economy. Direct foreign investment policies differ from country to country depending on the perception of the individual countries of the role of FDI in their economic development. However, there are issues other than direct foreign investment on which regional views may be calibrated. One of these relates to competition policy which has been discussed in WTO meetings but no specific decision has been taken. The multinational corporations in developing countries could follow policies which may drive out domestic firms. The SAARC countries could also follow policies which may reduce competition among themselves. This has to be closely monitored and safeguards should be built to prevent such displacements. A clear-cut policy in mergers and acquisition and other practices that reduce competition is required. These are related to issues of monopoly power and implications for employment opportunities. Countries in the South Asia could work out domestic competition policy in consultation with one another that would provide protection to the domestic industries.

4.d.7:Immunization
Immunization program should be taken jointly in the region so that it can be more effective.

4.d.8.Protection from various diseases
Various diseases viz. AIDS, Malaria, Dengue etc cause death to many people worldwide. Recently the problem of ‘Bird flu’ has become a challenge. We have to combat these jointly.

The following steps are envisaged in operationalizing this initiative:
Step 1: Setting up of working groups
Working groups on each of the topics listed could be set up as a first step. These groups could be formed by the SAARC Secretariat in consultation with national governments and comprises of persons dealing with different aspects of the concerned problem.
Step 2: Meeting of the working groups
The working groups, as a first step, could undertake a stock-taking exercise. They would also identify themes for collaboration on which further work might be required and commission studies and projects in this regard through either regional institutions or institutions located in specific countries.
Step 3: Reports of the working groups
Each working group would formulate a plan of action within a definite time frame for collaboration among SAARC member countries on specific themes identified by working groups.

4.e:Experience sharing and cooperation on social sector polices:

SAARC leaders in their summit meetings since 1985 have emphasized the imperative of social development. Broad targets on wide range of specific themes have been set in different summit declarations. A detailed analysis of the SAARC declarations indicates that SAARC leaders have been extremely concerned about the status of children, especially the girl child, trafficking in girls and sexual abuse, use of drugs and narcotic substances, food security, relief to the disabled and protection to the old and infirm. In addition, access to education, health and other basic needs has been designated as important concerns.
The following steps are envisaged in operationalizing this initiative :
Step 1: Constitution of working groups on thematic issues
Working groups on following themes may be set up:
- Status of girl child including trafficking and sexual exploitation
- Women’s empowerment
- Child labour
- Old-age protection
- Empowerment of the disabled
- Nutritional security
- Health
- Education
- Basic needs including water, sanitation, shelter, electricity connectivity.

The members of the working groups would be nominated by the national governments. While nominating members, the national government should ensure representation from NGOs working in the respective areas along with officials dealing with these subjects in the Central (Federal)/ State Government.
Step 2: Review of progress made on commitments
Each working group would review the commitments made on its theme by the national governments in the international conventions as also in the SAARC summit. It would also collate information to the follow-up actions taken by the countries to fulfill the commitments.
Step 3: Identification of best practices on each theme
South Asia already boasts of a number of innovative initiatives on the concerned themes. An important task of the working groups would be to develop digests of best practices through commissioned work or other suitable alternatives.
Step 4: Propagation of best practices
The best practices that are collected and collated by each working group need to be propagated widely so that local governments, community leaders and NGOs could adapt these practices in their respective areas. Different media channels could be used for propagation of the best practices. Use of information technology by putting these practices on the SAARC web-portal could also be considered.

4.f:Sharing of perspectives on multilateral negotiations with implications for poverty alleviation:

Several multilateral agreements in recent years have significant implications for poverty alleviation. These include the WTO Uruguay Round, followed by the Doha Ministerial Declaration, in turn followed by negotiations on the Agreement on Agriculture, the Johannesburg Plan of Action on Sustainable Development; the Monetary Declaration on Financing for Development; the (annual) Conference of Parties to the UN Framework on climate Change and several others. Similar negotiations in several multilateral forums will continue in the future, either under existing process, or new ones.
Perspectives of SAARC countries on these negotiations are generally convergent. Nevertheless, in some instances, there may be differences in nuance and priorities among the SAARC countries, reflecting their specific socio-economic situation. Identifying areas of convergence, as well as tracing the sources of differing perceptions may help the
policymakers and negotiators interact more effectively at such negotiations to reach mutually favorable outcomes.
The following steps are envisaged in operationalizing this initiative :
Step 1: Constitution of an advisory group on multilateral initiatives bearing on poverty alleviation
The advisory group may be nominated by respective governments from amongst its senior officials, development practitioners and academics. The advisory group will periodically identify upcoming multilateral negotiations and similar events of interest to the SAARC members in the context of poverty alleviation in the region and identify critical themes and issues involved in each of these events, which merit mutual sharing of perspectives. The group may conduct its business by e-group or video conferencing, rater than traveling to formal meetings.
Step 2: Commissioning collaborative studies on identified themes and issues
The SAARC Secretariat would commission collaborative policy studies on themes and issues identified by the advisory group by established policy research institutions in the SAARC region.
Step 3: Conducting regional seminars on each multilateral event
In advance of each multilateral event, a regional seminar would be organized to which key policymakers and negotiators from each of the SAARC members would be invited.

5.Conclusion

The countries of South Asia have their commonalties and their differences. The challenges they confront are complex and often intractable. There are issues which bring them together and those which divide them. Nevertheless on one issue, the interests of the peoples and the governments of South Asia stand clearly fused. This is the issue of poverty . Notwithstanding the despair of poverty statistics, a poverty-free South Asia is not an impossible dream. Such a dream has already found roots in millions of hearts across the length and breadth of the South Asian region.

A sound beginning has been made. Vast segments of the impoverished masses of South Asia are on the verge of organizing and mobilizing themselves for effectively tackling the problem of poverty. What is needed now is unity of leadership in the area to forge a common approach and strategy for alleviating poverty. In order to formulate and implement the holistic programmes and strategies for poverty alleviation the region will need to build a “Brave New Alliance” of social forces, including the poor themselves.































Reference:

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2. Ibid. p-66.
3. Ibid. p-67.
4. Ibid. p-70.
5. Ibid. p-70.
6. Ibid. p-71.
7. Ibid. p-73.
8. Doucument of the World Bank and Asian Bank Development Bank, Poverty in Bangladesh: Building on Progess, (2003), p-2.
9. Bangladesh economic review, 2005, p-164.
10. Ibid. p-165.
11. Millennium Development Goals Bangladesh Progress Report, (2005), Jointly prepared by the United Nations Country Team in Bangladesh and the Government of Bangladesh,p-7.
12. Ibid., p-7.
13. Ibid., p-10.
14. Ibid., p-10.
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16. Ibid. p-5.
17. Poverty gap, PG, estimates how far below the poverty line the poor are on average as a proportion of the value of that line. Squared poverty gap, SPG, takes into account not only the distance separating the poor from the poverty line but also inequality among the poor. The poverty gap and the squared poverty gap estimates are calculated using the cost-of-basic-needs method.
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24. Ibid., p-34.
25. Ibid.p-35.
26. Ibid.p-36.
27. Ibid.p-37.
28. Ibid.p-27.
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31. Ibid. p-28.
32. Ibid. p-30.
33. Independent South Asian Commission on Poverty Alleviation (ISACPA), (2004), SAARC Development Goals (SDGs) 2005-2010, p-20.
34. Doucument of the World Bank and Asian Bank Development Bank, Poverty in Bangladesh: Building on Progess, (2003), p-53.
35. Millennium Development Goals Bangladesh Progress Report, (2005), Jointly prepared by the United Nations Country Team in Bangladesh and the Government of Bangladesh,p-62.
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38. Ibid. p-41.
39. Ibid. p-42.
40. Ibid.p-43.
41. Independent South Asian Commission on Poverty Alleviation (ISACPA), (2004), SAARC Development Goals (SDGs) 2005-2010, p-20.
42. Millennium Development Goals Bangladesh Progress Report, (2005), Jointly prepared by the United Nations Country Team in Bangladesh and the Government of Bangladesh,p-48.
43. Ibid.,p-48
44. Ibid.,p-48.
45. The Protom-Alo, October 1, 2005
46. Ibid.,p-49.
47. (Source:Millennium Development Goals Bangladesh Progress Report, (2005), Jointly prepared by the United Nations Country Team in Bangladesh and the Government of Bangladesh,p-10.)
48. Ibid. p-11.
49. Ibid. p-12.
50. Ibid. p-13.
51. Ibid. p-13.
52. Ibid. p-15.
53. Ibid. p-17.
54. Ibid. p-18.
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56. Ibid., p.47.
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75. Ibid. p-35.
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107. Ibid. p-16.
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130. Ibid. p-98.
131. Ibid. p-100.
132. Ibid. p-104.
133. Ibid. p-105.
134. Report of the Independent South Asian Commission on Poverty Alleviation, 2003, p-13.

Information on rise of extremism in Bangladesh taken from Indian sources: US expert US Congressmen for inclusion of Dhaka in MCA programme

WASHINGTON DC, May 25 (BSS): The briefing of the Congress members on Bangladesh ended yesterday with strong recommendation trom the congressional leaders for inclusion of Bangladesh in the threshold programme of the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA). If included in the programme, the quantum of US development assistance for Bangladesh is expected to be doubled within a year, said a press release. The Congress has allocated about $100 million assistance for Bangladesh to be disbursed through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) this year. The MCA programme has created by President Bush. It offers additional funds to high performing developing nations, apart trom usual assistance trom the USAID. Congressman Joseph Crowley presided over the session. It was organised by the congressional human rights caucus. Crowley told the meeting that the purpose of the briefmg was to ''[md out what the United States, can do to help Bangladesh along the path to a treer and more democratic society." He presented a long list of successes of Bangladesh in economic and social sectors and noted that "given the fact that Bangladesh has demonstrated such a strong ability to effectively apply development funds," it should be included in the MCA assistance programme. There was a panel of administrative officials to brief the US congress on recent developments in Bangladesh that included John Gastright, Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for South Asia and Gene George, USAID Mission Director for Bangladesh. The second panel constituted by independent experts included NDI Resident Director in Bangladesh Owen Lippert, South Asia expert at the US Institute of Peace Ms. Christine Fair and T. Kumar ITom the US Chapter of the Amnesty International. Deputy Assistant Secretary Gastright, who recently visited Bangladesh, termed the country as a long-time triend of the US. He said Bangladesh is a democracy that has been its most notable features over the years for encouraging its moderate approach. He took a positive note of Bangladesh's progress since independence and pointed out that its sustained GDP growth was over 5.0 per cent in recent years. He appreciated the recent growth of the private sector in Bangladesh. He, however, stated that Bangladesh had some problems relating to the governance issue and the US policy would be to consider those problems "sympathetically." He appreciated the recent action taken by the government to ban two extremist groups and commended government's role to protect the rights of the Ahmadiyas. "Qll the whole, while Bangladesh faces many challenges, there is reason for optimism for a prosperous and truly' democratic Bangladesh," he said. Gene Gorge, US AID Mission Director for Bangladesh, assured the Congress that he would work closely with the government of Bangladesh (GoB) to meet the requirements to be eligible for becoming a beneficiary country under the Millennium Challenge funds. Lippert expressed his optimism for the future of democracy in Bangladesh and noted that there was a tendency among the observers to take into consideration some unrelated elements to establish their view. Chris Fair termed Bangladesh as an important ally of the United..$tates in the Muslim world where democracy and Islam co-exist. She, however, identified the controntational political environment as the key challenge facing Bangladesh that hinders governance. The United States should continue to provide extensive assistance to Bangladesh in building political institutions, she observed. Referring to the rise of extremism, she acknowledged that there was an absence of direct information trom Bangladesh and that much of information available in the US in this regard were being taken trom the Indian sources. BDNEWS adds: Recommending Bangladesh's inclusion in the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA), the US Congress has recommended for allocating about $100 million in assistance for Bangladesh to be disbursed through the USAID this year. At the members' meeting, overall political, social and human rights issues in Bangladesh came up for discussion. There were both appreciation and criticism of developments related to those issues. In a report placed before the briefing, country's political and social issues received mild criticism while empowerment of women and social sector developments were highly appreciated.
 
The Congressional hearing expressed doubt over the electoral system of the country and proposed for the presence of the UN election observation. Top leaders of the units of both ruling Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) and Awami League (AL) in the USA were present at the briefing. Opposition AL's senior presidium member Suranjit Sengupta was also present on the occasion. After the hearing, Foreign Minister M Morshed Khan and Suranjit Sengupta met Crowley. Khan was not present at the hearing. The BNP leaders in the USA expressed their satisfaction over the hearing. AL leader Suranjit Sengupta told the on-line news agency's New York Correspondent that the report placed before the hearing did not reflect the reality. "The report did not contain adequate information." Meanwhile, BSS reports further trom Washington: Foreign editor of The Washington Times David Jones Tuesday hosted a lunch in honour of the visiting Bangladesh Foreign Minister, Morshed Khan, at the Corporate office of the newspaper.
During the luncheon meeting, the Foreign Minister apprised the Editor and journalists of The Washington Times of Bangladesh's economic progress and positive developments in strengthening democratic institutions, said a press release. He said although Bangladesh is a Muslim majority country. But members of all religious communities are equally treated in the country and there is communal harmony prevailing in Bangladesh, he added.